Electronic Information Management System AMNIMARJESLOW GOVERNMENT 91220017 LOR EL IN FORMAT ELECTRONIC LCLAR 02096010014 LJ BUSAF ORBIT

 
Today, operators of classic aircraft are seeking the addition of new technologies, such as the integration of GPS/FMS, and even complete Electronic Information Systems (EIS), in order to meet the demands of a rapidly changing operational environment. The addition of such items to an already crowded flight deck poses problems that the original manufacturer never had to consider. The most obvious is the lack of adequate and appropriate space ("real estate") in which to install such updates. Unfortunately, such additions in an already limited area, can lead to very different and quite unique crew interfaces due to the location chosen for the new display/control box (or boxes). This lack of space can also lead to the complex redesign, combining, and miniaturization of current systems simply to provide sufficient "real estate" to install the new box(es). This, in itself, may very well lead to increased crew workload which may not be immediately apparent to design engineers. This paper examines the human factors issues involved with the integration of modern electronic information systems into the flight deck of classic air transport category aircraft through the Supplemental Type Certificate process.
   
    
Information, Communication and Electronic Technologies (ICT) have been a natural area of ​​activity of CCG - Centre for Computer Graphics in a cross-disciplinary way, and, with particular emphasis, on the skills shown in applied research.
Companies and ICT Institutions are seen, both in a partnership perspective and in a Customer/ Supplier relationship, as CCG’s elected market, seeking to develop and provide R&D of Technology services with a tangible added value to their clients and partners.
The solutions developed and the services provided by CCG to ICT companies have been oriented to multiple sectors of activity, including:

• Health and wellness
• Industry
• Retail

Each sector presents challenges and opportunities that are explored by CCG, in order to find innovative technology solutions, which once incorporated into final products and services, turn out in added value and distinction to customers.
CCG knows the nature of development of technologies and information systems, from finding and validating innovative concepts, to evaluating business models, passing through all the stages of the process of product engineering. Thereby CCG complements the customer, expanding its capacity for innovation.                               

                                   Electronic Information Management System 


In today's volatile marketplace, businesses are in a never ending search for information, "The Information Age". The search for information is not a "new" challenge, however, today the problem has evolved into something markedly more complex. The Internet and the World Wide Web, E-Mail, Voice Mail, Television, Radio, Newspapers, Magazines, Commercial Online Services, News Feeds, Local and Wide Area Networks....
Information Overload !!! Businesses and individuals alike are being assaulted by a barrage of information that exceeds their ability and/or time to analyze, synthesize, and disseminate. Everybody has the information, most are being asphyxiated by it. The true value of information, however, is not its immediate use. In order to effectively exploit information it must be readily available for analysis and synthesis with other information. It is the ability to combine various fragments of information and capitalize on the result in such a way as to give an advantage that provides value, not the information itself. Solution Management of information is the solution to the overload crisis. Unlike the "Good Old Days" as you will sometimes here them referred to, where a notebook and filing cabinet were all that you needed, management of information now requires a system that can administer data in a variety of formats. In today's business environment an electronic information system is required. In addition to the functions of information storage and retrieval, these systems also provide:

• The ability to administer electronic data (Internet , E-mail, Voice Mail)
• Distribution of information through the use of desktop PCs and LANs
• Increased ability for collaboration through the use of groupware
• Automated information procurement, abstraction, and dissemination

An electronic Information Management System integrates all of the necessary information procurement, administration, abstraction, analysis and dissemination tools into a homogenous environment. 


                                   Q  .  I    Issues in Electronic Information Systems 


A New Technology Creates New Ethical Dilemmas
New computer technologies for gathering, storing, manipulating, and communicating data are revolutionizing the use and spread of information. Along the way, they are also creating ethical dilemmas. The speed and efficiency of electronic information systems, which include local and global networks, databases, and programs for processing information, force people to confront entirely new rights and responsibilities in their use of information and to reconsider standards of conduct shaped before the advent of computers.
The Importance of Ethics in Information Systems
Information is a source of power and, increasingly, the key to prosperity among those with access to it. Consequently, developments in information systems also involve social and political relationships-- and so make ethical considerations in how information is used all the more important. Electronic systems now reach into all levels of government, into the workplace, and into private lives to such an extent that even people without access to these systems are affected in significant ways by them. New ethical and legal decisions are necessary to balance the needs and rights of everyone.
Ethics Fill the Gap as Legal Decisions Lag Behind Technology
As in other new technological arenas, legal decisions lag behind technical developments. Ethics fill the gap as people negotiate how use of electronic information should proceed. The following notes define the broad ethical issues now being negotiated. Since laws deciding some aspects of these issues have been made, these notes should be read in conjunction with Legal Issues in Electronic Information Systems.
Ethical Issues Specific to Electronic Information Systems
Ethics include moral choices made by individuals in relation to the rest of the community, standards of acceptable behavior, and rules governing members of a profession. The broad issues relating to electronic information systems include control of and access to information, privacy and misuse of data, and international considerations. All of these extend to electronic networks, electronic databases, and, more specifically, to geographic information systems. Specific problems within each of the three areas, however, require slightly different kinds of ethical decisions. Networks, electronic information systems in general, and geographic information systems in particular are discussed separately below.  


Electronic Networks

 A Network Defined

Any set of computers able to communicate with one another constitutes a network. Some networks are contained within institutions or companies, enabling people within a single organization to communicate electronically. Many of these small systems are also hooked into other organizations' computers. Thousands of such networks collectively form the Internet. Much of the following discussion has been formed with the Internet in mind, but the issues raised may be applied to smaller networks as well.
Networks as Sources of Power
Electronic networks were first established as a reliable means of communication and as a means for exchanging information efficiently, but they have become much more. Large networks represent new sources of power. In order to create reliability and efficiency in communication, networks were structured so that the movement of information would not depend on --and could not be controlled by--another person or computer. As a result, the larger networks have become anarchic. Ordinary people with relatively few resources can communicate ideas and information, however uncommon, unpopular, or politically sensitive those ideas or information may be, to millions of other people around the world. No government, no hierarchical system exerting either repressive or benign influence, not even the simple constraints of time and money, will have quite the same control they once had over the flow of information as long as the networks operate as they now do. For some people, the networks therefore contain exciting possibilities; for others they have become a threatening, even subversive, new presence.
Networks as Social Places
Networks have also become social places, where people discover friendships, discuss issues, find others who share unusual interests, argue, form groups, commiserate, proselytize, play games, and fall in love. These activities have brought comparisons with more traditional communities, villages, or places. One essayist, Ray Oldenburg, has referred to the networks as a new sort of "Third Place," where people gather for conviviality, apart from home and work (First and Second Places). He theorizes that the networks may replace opportunities for social interaction lost in the modern world of suburbs, express highways, and shopping malls. Other writers are more cautious and when talking about the sociability of the networks use qualified terms : virtual communities or virtual villages, for instance. Such terms acknowledge the differences inherent in the kinds of interactions that take place over computer networks. A lack of face-to-face contact, for instance, has a leveling effect. Race, class, gender, and physical appearance are hidden, allowing interaction that is relatively free from all the subtle biases that usually accompany more direct human relations. On the other hand, this virtual anonymity allows interaction without any sort of commitment; the sense of shared responsibility that people must have in a real community does not necessarily exist on the Internet.
New Funding Sources Mean New Ethical Issues
Nonetheless, the networks have attracted loyal participants who recognize the value of what has been created in this new form of human interaction and who put a great deal of thought into the future character and uses of the networks. Electronic networks are becoming more common and their influence more pervasive but they are also changing under the influence of people and institutions who are relatively new to the networks. Funding, once almost exclusively public, now comes increasingly from private, or commercial, sources, and this change in funding will also mean changes in ideas about the proper uses of the networks and the nature of interaction on them. Recognition of the power and potential of electronic networks has created some hotly contested issues. These range from relatively simple questions of proper behavior and use within them to more important questions of political power, control of communications, equality of access, and privacy .

Acceptable Behavior on the Networks: New Standards of Conduct Cultural norms and values shape a society's definition of acceptable behavior. On-line standards of conduct are founded on the norms of the society in which a network is set, but these broader norms and values are often challenged by the character of human interaction in electronic networks. Networks stretch across societies that have different values and traditions. The computers that form them have capacities that allow people to do things they could not do before--and to do so with anonymity. Finally, the networks, new as they are, have their own social history, in which somewhat different norms have been formed. The people who have so far populated the virtual community have tended to value individuality, free expression, free exchange of information, anarchy and nonconformity more than other groups. Acceptable behavior on the networks, therefore, has slightly different standards. These may change as many more people join the networks. But, so far, the less conventional on-line standards of conduct have been jealously guarded by long-time network users. These users generally are people who have strong feelings about the shape of life on their various networks and about what shape it will take in the future. New users of the Internet and of various smaller networks should be aware that they are entering an unconventional social community.
Issues of acceptable behavior in the networks include simple standards of civility to questions of rights and responsibilities in distributing information that have not yet been clarified in law.
 

 Netiquette

How to Behave on the Networks: Remember Where You Are
Netiquette, or on-line civility, is a matter of common sense and of remembering the context of behavior. The Internet's emphasis on free expression, for instance, has meant that what might be considered rude elsewhere will often be tolerated on various networks in order to protect the principles of individual expression. Groups discuss every conceivable subject, obscenities flow on some parts of the Internet, pornography flourishes. Some people make a game of verbally hassling one another. Rather than squashing individuality with broad regulations, system administrators have so far tended to referee or negotiate specific situations in which conflicts occur. However, activities that would be questionable off the networks should be approached with some judgment and kept to the parts of the networks (in bulletin boards established for a specific purpose, for instance) where those who would be offended can avoid them.
Some Activities That Will Offend
Specific activities that do offend most network users usually occur when the capacities of computers for allowing rapid, efficient communication and for giving access to other people's systems are misused. So, for instance, sending a rambling message to everyone with an e-mail address at the local state university is not considered appropriate even though computers make sending such a message relatively effortless. Unsolicited advertising is especially resented and will get an equally unsolicited reaction. In one case, a law firm's efforts to advertise over the Usenet prompted one young man in Norway to launch a cancelbot, a message that automatically destroyed the firm's transmissions every time it sent out an advertisement. He was applauded by other Usenet participants, although his actions did raise concerns about wider use of arbitrary censorship.
Some simple guidelines to on-line civil behavior follow:

• In general, do not waste other people's time, be disruptive, or threaten.
• Do not take up network storage space with large, unnecessary files; these should be downloaded.
• Do not look at other people's files or use other systems without permission.
• When joining a bulletin board or discussion group, check the FAQ (frequently asked questions) file before asking questions.
• Remember that on-line communications lack the nuances of tone, facial expression, and body language. Write clearly. Try to spell correctly and to use good grammar.
• Add emoticons, or Smileys --expressive symbols--to clarify meaning.
• Do not SHOUT needlessly. Capital letters are the on-line equivalent of shouting.
• Use asterisks to give emphasis, but do so *sparingly*.
• Sign messages, and include an e-mail address when writing to strangers, just in case a message's header is lost.
• Personal attacks or complaints are called flaming. Be discriminate: flaming can turn into flame wars and disrupt discussion groups.
• People who become too obnoxious can be banned from a system or simply ignored. A "kill file" will automatically erase messages sent from a person who has become intolerable. 

Acceptable Use Policies Different Networks Have Different Policies
The networks that collectively form the Internet have different purposes, and they allow different kinds of traffic to pass through them. People who communicate across various networks must learn what they are allowed to do on each. Networks established for research and education, for instance, forbid most commercial activities. These restrictions now exist largely because research and education networks are supported with public funds. In the future, however, more and more of the Internet will be supported by private money. Commercial uses will become a more prominent feature of the Internet. Many researchers who now use the Internet worry about the change from public to private support. They see commercial activities, especially advertising, as intrusions on the time and attention of people at work. The level of hostility toward such activities runs high, so how commercial and research or education uses will mix is not yet clear even as public funding becomes uncertain.
Written Policies Outline Permissions and Restrictions
Various networks have produced written statements outlining what sort of traffic they permit. Many simply state the purpose of the network in question and restrict users to that purpose. Most explicitly forbid disruptive, frivolous, illegal, and obscene communications, along with any form of harassment. Others simply try to balance free exchange of information, in the spirit of the Internet, with concern about unfair uses of what they have so freely provided.

 Exporting Through the Networks

Export Restrictions Apply But Clear Guidelines Are Lacking
Electronic files can be sent around the world in seconds and without physical restriction, which might lead people to think that other restrictions on them do not exist. Yet export regulations from the U.S. Department of Commerce do apply in electronic networks. To make matters more complex, export restrictions vary for different destination countries. As a rule, the people transferring files over networks are responsible for knowing and applying legal restrictions. Unfortunately, people sending files across national borders often are left without clear legal guidelines for specific situations because export law has not kept pace with the movement of information across electronic networks. . Networks which allow people from remote locations to log-in and use information or computer systems stored on computers within the U.S. have created even more complex problems, and have left network operators with little clear guidance. There are, however, some general principles to follow.
Some General Principles to Follow
For the most part, information commonly and freely available from U.S. periodicals, books, conferences, libraries, or university courses falls under general license, which means it may be transferred to other countries without further permission. What is restricted in electronic information, which may include data, software, machine readable code, encryption code, and so on, is more difficult to define. The following examples, though hardly comprehensive, illustrate some of the difficulties encountered when export laws are applied to electronic networks.

Example: Encryption codes, which are used to translate data into code that cannot be read without a key, are restricted. The U.S. government claims that such codes must be controlled for reasons of national security. Encryption codes are treated as munitions under export law and therefore require special export permission from the Department of State. This policy draws vociferous criticism from people who claim that the government is unfairly attempting to control access to and privacy of communications.

In one case, the government ruled that a source code for an encryption device already published in a book--a book not restricted from export--could not be distributed across national borders through a computer network because the code in digital format represented a different form of information. The source code in the new format was partitioned into files which, the government stated, could be "compiled into an executable subroutine."

Example: Access to hardware through a network may be restricted. If certain computer hardware may not be exported physically from the U.S., then access to that hardware may not be given to people working from countries to which export is forbidden.

When BITNET in 1990 decided to link into the Soviet Union, a letter from the U.S. Office of Technology and Policy Analysis reminded BITNET's operators that they could not allow open, international access to certain types of systems. The same letter pointed out that exporting certain kinds of software by file transfer over the network would require special licenses. A second letter informed the BITNET operators of their responsibility to maintain a vaguely defined "level of care" in making sure that the network's members were not exporting materials illegally while using BITNET.

 Copyrights

Existing Law is Challenged by Electronic Information Systems
The fluidity of information on the networks has caused some confusion about how copyrights and intellectual property rights apply to electronic files. In the relatively small world of the original network users, an emphasis on free exchange of information and a common understanding of intellectual property allayed most potential conflicts over use of information. Now, as the networks grow larger and attract a broader range of people, some clarification of how electronic files may be used is becoming necessary. The ease with which electronic files can be distributed and the nature of some electronic information create problems within existing copyright law: either the law does not address the peculiarities of electronic information or the law is too easily subverted by the ease with which files can be copied and transferred. Similar problems have arisen with photocopy machines, VCRs, and tape recorders. To make matters more complex, other countries may have different copyright laws, so information made available globally through a network may not have the same protections in other places.
Existing U.S. Copyright Law Provides Some Guidance
While the law does not always provide clear guidelines to rights and responsibilities even within the U.S., a familiarity with basic existing copyright principles should keep most network users on ethical grounds.

• Copyrights protect original works of authorship, including literary, musical, dramatic, graphic, audiovisual, and architectural works, and sound recordings.
• The law forbids unauthorized reproduction, distribution, performance, or display of works with copyrights. The general intent of the law is to protect the commercial value of a work.
• Having a copy of a work with a copyright does not mean that the holder also has the right to distribute, reproduce, perform, or display it.
• Copyrights apply to both published and unpublished work. Under the international Berne Convention on copyrights, which the U.S. signed in 1989, a copyright comes into effect from the moment a work is created and is fixed in some form of tangible expression.
• A copyright notice is not required for copyright protection. The only way a copyright can be invalidated is by explicit announcement by the author that copyright protections are waived.
• Copyrights do not apply to titles, short phrases, names, slogans, mere listing of ingredients, or works consisting entirely of unoriginal information (such as standard calendars).
• Copyrights do not extend to ideas, procedures, methods, systems, concepts, principles, discoveries, or devices; these must be patented for protection.
• Works in the public domain (those not extended copyright protections) include those created by an author who has been dead for at least 50 years, works created by the federal government, and works explicitly granted to the public domain.
• Complete international copyright protection does not exists. Works are subject to the laws of individual nations, although most nations have signed international agreements on copyrights.

Who is Responsible for Copyright Protection?: Carriers vs. Providers
Any work with a copyright, therefore, should not be distributed or reproduced on networks without permission of the author. This application of copyright law is fairly straightforward, but the question now becomes, who is responsible for enforcing copyright protection on the networks? The federal High Performance Computing Act of 1991 holds the National Research and Education Network (NREN) responsible for protecting the copyrights of materials distributed on that network. But NREN administrators point out that the requirement is unenforceable. The network does not provide information, rather it provides links between networks and routes or relays information packets. The people at NREN propose instead that their role as carrier and the role of information services should be separated in the law, with responsibility for copyright protections going to the information services. They suggest that technical means, such as digital markers identifying the holder of a file copy and subscription fees to information services, be used to regulate the distribution and use of materials with copyrights.
How is Work Created on a Network Protected?
The principles of copyright laws apply easily to work not created in an electronic file. But what about "original work" that is created within a network? The law applies in sometimes surprising ways, and users should think about copyrights before distributing or reproducing work created by another person. For instance:

E-mail

E-mail is protected by copyright. Information received in e-mail may be discussed, but the specific contents of e-mail have copyright protection.
 

Usenet Postings

Usenet postings may also be protected. These may be read and discussed by however many people have access to the Usenet, but they cannot be reproduced and distributed in any way that may diminish the author's ability to profit from the original work--however farfetched such profit may seem. One author has brought up an interesting question concerning network postings. John Coate asks, "does the fact that anything you say in an on-line system can be downloaded and printed out by anyone who happens to read it create a different class of reproduction than quoting without permission from a commercial publication? If a journalist quotes something from an on-line system and they don't obtain permission, did they steal it, or did they overhear it in a conversation?" Coate's answer is that whatever seems like "fair use" probably is, but he also points out that actual control of such use is impossible and that good manners are "critically important."  
Computer Programs
Computer programs, which might appear to be ideas, procedures, systems, or devices, may be registered as "literary works" under the law, and therefore receive copyright protection

Access to Electronic NetworksWhy is Access Important?
One of the major issues in electronic networks is the question of access: who will have access to the networks, and what kinds of information will be accessible. These questions are important because networks offer tremendous economic, political, and even social advantages to people who have access to them. As the networks become a larger presence in society, conflicts may arise between information "haves" and "have-nots." Conceivably, network communication could create greater equality by offering common access to all resources for all citizens. Already, in a few places scattered around the country, experiments with "freenets," network connections established through local libraries or other municipal or local organizations specifically for people who otherwise would have no way to use the networks, have shown that those people will, for instance, participate more in local government issues. They therefore have a greater voice in whatever happens with local government. Conversely, if access is not evenly distributed, it threatens to perpetuate or deepen existing divides between the poor, who cannot afford expensive computer systems, and the better-off.
Three key aspects of the issue are in debate.

What principle will guide access?
 

Few people disagree that access to the networks also provides access to power. People disagree, however, on the principles that should guide network access. Some think that the private market now growing up around the networks can respond to the issue, because with more and more people buying computers and joining network services prices will drop and become adequately affordable to the majority of people. Others think that the access issue is too important to be left solely to the market. They seek guarantees of universal service already applied to the telephone and postal systems. Their approach raises difficult issues of public costs and subsidies.

How will the networks be structured?

At present, the Internet is open to all. People interact freely; no hierarchical or centralized control exists. However, the coming information superhighway now discussed so broadly in the U.S. may be built on different terms and will be largely funded privately or corporately. Cable and telephone companies are now vying for a major part in the building of the information superhighway, which eventually will provide access to multimedia resources and data services through a national network based, they hope, on their existing lines.

The present infrastructures of cable and telephone services offer two very different types of networks. Cable lines are generally designed for one-way communication--to the customer. In these systems, the companies retain control over "tree and branch" networks, allowing them control over the flow and content of information. Telephone lines, however, operate on an open, switch system in which anyone within the system can send and receive information to and from anyone else, much like the present operation of the Internet. Everyone on the network could produce information, telecasts, sound recordings, etc., at home or at work; people would have an infinite choice of data or programs to receive; no single company could control the flow and content on the information highway. Some people see exciting new cultural, political, and entrepreneurial possibilities in such an open system. Others see its anarchic qualities as dangerous and even subversive.

What will be allowed on the networks?
 

Questions of free speech and community standards of decency on the Internet are difficult to resolve even now in the United States. At present, under laws defined without computer networks in mind, local communities may define what is or is not obscene, and therefore not tolerated, within their geographic borders. The networks, however, have no such borders; so who defines obscenity on them has become a divisive issue. The problems will become still greater as network communication grows and crosses additional intranational, as well as international, boundaries--and cultural divides. Many types of information and communication taken for granted in some cultures and places are deeply offensive in others. This is not just a question of pornography, one of the major issues within the United States, but of conflicts over deeply held religious, political, and cultural values relating to many different aspects of day-to-day life.

Communities without borders: Whose standards apply?

In the United States, conflicts have already arisen with respect to community standards of decency and the Internet. In one case, a couple living in California was charged with indency in Memphis for making available on the Internet pictures of bestiality, even though the images were posted on a closed bulletin board and no complaints were filed in the California community where the couple lived. As of January 1995, the couple face a jail sentence. Further cases are likely to arise now that individuals have great freedom both to publish and to distribute across state and community boundaries.

International issues

In the international arena, issues of community standards will remain sensitive. The problem may, in some countries, be a prime consideration in how the Internet is allowed to grow. Some nations have far different attitudes toward political debate and the expression of political dissent. Among world religions, tremendous differences exist in attitudes toward blasphemy, heresy, and family values. Finally, no international consensus exists on issues of human sexuality, obscenity, reproduction, and personal values. The free expression so valued by long-term network users thus conflicts directly with another valued feature of the Internet--its international reach and potential for rich cross-cultural exchanges. How the issue will be resolved will affect the fundamental nature of the Internet in the future.

Privacy and Electronic Networks A Counterpoint to Open Access: What Others Know About You
Countering questions of rights to access are questions of privacy. The degree of control that people have over what other people can find out and distribute about them has dropped markedly with the growth of electronic databases and network communications. The amount and kinds of personal information available as a result of both technologies is startling: financial, medical, educational and employment histories; driving records, insurance records, buying habits, hobbies, pets, family and associates, travels, phone usage--where and when, income, marital status, criminal records, address changes, and so on, can all be accessed through electronic networks. In 1986, the Electronics Communication Privacy Act (ECPA) passed by Congress gave some protection from electronic violations of privacy, but a great deal of room for abuse persists. Individuals, companies, and the government have all pushed existing barriers to what they can know about other people, even at times bringing into question the protections of the American Bill of Rights. New laws may eventually add some protection, but are not the only answer. Some people, such as Curtis Karnow, point out that laws often do not fit the fast-moving cyberspace culture, and often cannot be enforced since infringements may not be detectable or even stoppable. People like Karnow suggest instead that evolving social norms and technological shields will offer better protection as the networks grow and become more powerful.

Challenges to Privacy by Individuals.

Two kinds of individuals have access to personal information that might be kept in a networked computer: hackers, those with no right to a system on which personal files might be held, and system operators, who have rights to be on a system but not necessarily to read personal files. System operators have access to root directories and can, for instance, read everything on private e-mail accounts (although they may not do so since the ECPA was passed). They might also hold backup tapes of entire root directories containing personal files that were thought to be safely deleted. Hackers and system operators do not necessarily pose a threat to privacy rights that is any greater than risks run with a curious postman or telephone operator. However, they can get access to personal information with a much smaller risk of detection, which makes the enforcement of privacy rights much more difficult.

Challenges to Privacy by Companies: Selling Information.

Because selling information is so lucrative, and so much is available through the networks, companies have begun to profit from data they already hold for their own purposes. For instance, companies with 800 or 900 numbers can legally gather the names, billing addresses, and phone numbers of all their callers. This information can be bought and sold freely, though if companies become too flagrant about it people may simply stop using their services. The same is true for on-line services such as Prodigy, which know not only their members' social security and credit card numbers, but may also hold entire profiles on people, including what bulletin boards they join--discussion groups for cancer survivors, for instance, which might be a danger for a job applicant. Some companies also gather data merely for the purpose of selling it. Few protections against these practices have been established, though some have been proposed in Congress. People need to be aware of exactly what they are revealing and to whom when giving out information, however inadvertently.

Challenges to Privacy by Companies: Monitoring Employees

Under the rules of the ECPA, companies may also electronically monitor their employees. Employers can tap e-mail and other network communications, they can look through employee electronic files, and eavesdrop on phone conversations. Employees who do repetitive tasks on computers can be monitored for speed and accuracy. These practices may protect companies from employee dishonesty, but they can also create extremely stressful working conditions.

Challenges to Privacy by Government: Access to Databases

Federal and state agencies hold and verify enormous amounts of information about individuals, which they share with one another and with the private sector. A 1989 General Accounting Office report found that over 2000 federal agencies maintain databases of various kinds of personal information. Much of this data is covered by privacy laws in theory, but is still shared in practice.

Challenges to Privacy by Government: Search and Seizure Laws

In addition to not always being careful about the information it keeps and distributes, the government has been testing some traditional rights which offer some specific forms of privacy protection. The Fourth Amendment in the U.S. Constitution guarantees protection from unreasonable search and seizure. Yet the ECPA allows the FBI to seize entire computer systems in order to comb through files. The FBI must have a search warrant, but only if the information they seek is less than six months old. If the information has been on a system for more than six months, only a subpoena is needed. This gives federal authorities theoretical access to tremendous amounts of personal files, which happen to be held on a suspect computer system.

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 Electronic Databases

Electronic Format Changes the Way Information is Used

Electronic databases cost a great deal of money to establish: they must be designed carefully to get the best use possible out of raw data, the necessary computer equipment must be acquired, reams of information once held only in paper format must be entered into the database, people must be trained in how to enter and use information in digital formats. But once electronic databases are created they change the way that information is used. More information, and in seemingly infinite combinations, can be stored with less effort, time, and money. Changes or additions to the existing database become relatively simple; information can be retrieved and manipulated with breathtaking speed and ease. As a consequence, information in electronic databases has become more valuable and has been assigned new uses. Holders of databases become tempted to sell them, causing conflicts with privacy rights. Information, for example from the records of federal agencies, becomes more in demand, creating further conflicts with both privacy rights and with the mandated functions of agencies who become overwhelmed by demands for access to their publicly-owned databases. Some of the general problems encountered with electronic databases are covered below.
 

 Data Mosaics

One of the most powerful features of electronic databases lies in their ability to link together enormous quantities and types of information. Using, for instance, social security numbers, or any other unique anchor for information, a database creator can take bits of information from various sources and build up a detailed profile on specific people or objects, as well as on thousands of others at the same time. The information in the database does not have to be stored in a single place, but can be called up from other sources held on other computers, as long as the information is contained in a compatible format. The result is often referred to as a data mosaic. These mosaics can be arranged and rearranged for thousands of different uses. They can be shared at relatively little cost by a number of different agencies, each perhaps having to store and manage only a part of the whole mosaic. They eliminate the thousands of hours of tedious and expensive indexing and arranging once required for information held on paper. They do so, however, at some cost since such mosaics can also lead to misuse of information.
 

 Inadvertent Consequences of Data Sharing

The consequences of sharing data and creating mosaics can be fairly complex. Many problems are simply logistical. A database manager may have to balance required security of a data set with providing access to it. Information systems may need to be designed carefully in order to prevent inappropriate access to all or part of a data set and still allow a way to benefit from sharing information. However, some more basic problems with how information is handled also arise with storing and manipulating information in digital formats. Two are discussed here to illustrate the range of problems created along with electronic databases.

Propagation of Errors

Errors can make their way into a database in any number of ways, and in an instant can create endless complications in someone's life. Say, for instance, a data entry clerk makes a mistake in entering an individual's credit rating. If the individual discovers the error upon being told his or her credit is bad after applying for a bank loan, the error might be fixed easily at the agency that created the error (if the mistake is proven). But what if such a mistake has been passed to other holders of financial or personal information? Who is responsible for tracking down every agency that might have acquired the error along with masses of other information? Individuals, at the moment, have no way to access, check, and correct discrepancies as they appear. Errors may be passed far beyond the site where they first occur and be almost impossible to correct. In a data mosaic, such an error might even be propagated further. Individuals with bad credit ratings might be thrown together into a related category, and the reason for being placed in this new category within a new database might then be obscured. The original error would then be compounded, and becomes even more difficult to correct. Who is responsible? Who should be? Questions like this are still open to debate.

Propensity Profiles

Database creators often focus their efforts on finding people or objects with sets of characteristics which they think suggest something else about the people or objects thus profiled. For instance, the marketing specialist for the manufacturer of a specific car can target certain people because they possess a set of characteristics that together give them the appearance of becoming likely buyers: people who live within certain zip code areas, who now own a similar car that is six years old, who have no more than two children, and so forth. Such practices have become a familiar feature of American life, but while becoming the target of a marketing scheme can be annoying or even slightly disturbing, it is relatively innocuous. Such profiles, however, also have been put to less innocent uses. Police have used propensity profiles to target people as possible suspects because they possess certain characteristics, characteristics which in themselves do not indicate criminal activity. Some police departments, for instance, have used utility records to ferret out home-based drug labs. People who use unusual amounts of water and electricity became the objects of police attention. Imagine, in such a scenario, what might happen to the honest citizen in a cold, northern state who also lives on the wrong side of the tracks and has a passion for rare tropical plants. Propensity profiles may have led to the discovery of drug labs, but they have also opened the way to violating basic and Constitutional rights for reasons that seem logical but which have been conjured out of substitute information.

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 Geographic Information Systems

GIS Also Create New Sets of Data
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) can be used to create data mosaics and so may share some of the potential problems of other database systems. But GIS also have specific capabilities and characteristics which come with their own ethical dilemmas. As well as their database functions and mapping features, GIS can perform spatial analysis and so create entirely new sets of data. The data gathered and created by public agencies have become increasingly valuable and attractive to a wide range of people and businesses. Because GIS are often operated by local, state, and federal agencies--organizations with the resources to run such costly systems--conflicts have arisen over rights to access. Three types of existing conflicts are outlined below. The first provides the general terms of the majority of conflicts over access; the last two examples point out more specialized cases of conflicting interests.
 

 Conflicting Responsibilities: Serve and Protect

GIS Information is Often Public Information and Agencies Like to Share Costs
GIS are used extensively by local, state, and federal agencies. Often government agencies share a Geographic Information System in order to also share costs, to prevent redundancies in storing information, and to make the system overall more useful. These agencies must find a balance between effectively sharing information and preserving the integrity of any private records they hold.
Access to Public Information vs. Privacy
This required balance between effective access and preservation of privacy has become an even greater problem when the demands of private citizens or companies enter the equation. Government agencies are publicly owned, and they are required by law to give open access to the information they hold. The Freedom of Information Act of 1966 (FOIA) mandates public access in order to ensure accountability and prevent corruption. While it makes some allowances for preservation of privacy and for national security, the FOIA, along with the Open Records acts of the various states, contains a series of rules which prevent agencies from creating obstacles to access. The ability to preserve privacy of citizens, and of companies who have some involvement with governmental agencies, becomes increasingly difficult as the ability to manipulate and store information grows. Complicating the picture is the ability of systems like GIS to create entirely new data out of old information, which may then indirectly reveal information that is supposed to be private.
Access to Public Information vs. New Demands on Public Agencies
The GIS operated by governmental agencies, meanwhile, have become so powerful and the information they produce so valuable that ever greater demands are made for the information they hold. The intent of the FOIA and Open Records acts was specifically to ensure governmental accountability; but the nature and volume of demands for access to public records held in public Geographic Information Systems as well as other powerful electronic formats, is creating a burden on public agencies for purposes of private profit. People or corporations who find information held by public agencies economically valuable will demand access based on Open Records or FOIA statutes. At the same time, not all citizens have the means or training to use digital formats, which may create obstacles to their access. And to make matters even more complex, some private companies make their living from "value-added" information, from manipulating, arranging, or analyzing data in such a way that it becomes more valuable for specific kinds of information users. These companies find dissemination of value-added information by publicly-funded agencies to be unfair and in conflict with their private interests. The inability of laws like the FOIA, which were created before the advent of intangible computer records, to cope with electronic information has thus created a myriad of problems, even as computers have become essential new tools. Some of the problems already encountered by federal, state and local agencies are outlined below:
What's a public record? What are agencies required to provide?

Agencies can no longer be sure what must be made accessible: the boundary between what is and is not a record is no longer clear. If public information in digital format can only be read with specific software, must the software be provided along with the record? What happens if an agency uses proprietary software to store and analyze public records? What's a reasonable search?
The FOIA states that agencies must only make "reasonable" searches for requested information, in order to prevent burdensome requests; but what is a reasonable search? The definition of reasonable becomes broader with the efficiencies of electronic information, but by how much? The answer must balance traditional rights to access with the burden that would be placed on public agencies should the definition of "reasonable" be made too broad.
May user fees be charged?
How should agencies balance their traditional mandates with meeting the requirements of the FOIA and Open Records acts? Electronic searching for requested information under FOIA rules raises new staffing and budgetary problems. Staff must be trained in computer skills, for instance, or an agency with particularly valuable information may find itself overwhelmed with requests for public information. User fees are generally considered an obstacle to access; so where do agencies draw the line on providing information? Some agencies may simply stop creating particularly useful information systems in order to avoid the problem, and so concentrate on their own mandates.
Must agencies provide records on paper or in digital format?
Some people cannot use information in digital formats; some records have no practical use when provided on paper--too much data is needed to be handled on anything but a computer, for instance. How can the government legislate which records must be provided in which format? As with all of the conflicts listed above, government agencies must find ways to preserve traditional rights and to maintain traditional responsibilities as new technologies create fundamental differences in how information is treated.

 International Data: Taking and Sharing

American satellites orbit the earth, scanning for various kinds of data, which can then be used in a GIS. Analysis of resulting data tells researchers a great deal about, for instance, natural resources located in other countries. Conflicts have arisen over the collection and use of such data. Poorer countries, without the financial resources to send up their own satellites, claim that the U.S. is taking information from them without any kind of recompense. They demand that the satellite data gathered from and about their countries be shared with them. The problem is a difficult one. The data derived from satellite information can be extremely valuable, but it is also costly to gather and use. Should the U.S. share the information with the countries from which it is taken?
 

 Knowing is Destroying

Public agency mandates and the right to access of public records are also creating problems of a different sort. Some agencies are charged with responsibilities to study and thereby help protect endangered species, others to understand and help preserve archaeological sites. Some of these agencies are finding that detailed information about species and their habitats or about sensitive archaeological sites can also harm endangered animals or places. Habitats and sites become vulnerable because they become known. The problem lies in the right to access of public records. Agencies may decide that the best protection of species or sites is simply to not gather detailed information about them.
         

  

Q  .  II  Why Use Electronic Communications?  The Internet and electronic communications (also called computer mediated communications, or CMC) doesn't just mean new tools for communication; it means new ways to communicate. Today your organization interacts with its various constituents differently - employees, board members, customers, partners and others - depending upon the nature of the message, the goals you are trying to achieve and the strengths (and weaknesses) of the available media - telephones, voice mail, fax machines, print, etc. Electronic communications adds a powerful new channel that not only will change how you use this mix of options, but it will create entirely new ways to interact. For example: Electronic communications lets you combine numerous media - text, graphics sound, video, etc. - into a single message. That can result in far more meaningful communications tailored to the nature of your particular audience. In contrast to broadcasting, narrowcasting reflects the ability to develop numerous communications for subsets of your market or constituencies. Electronic communications is interactive. It engages audiences in active, two-way communications. That requires a new way of thinking about advertising copy and the handling of public relations. The pay-off, however, is a self-selected audience, engaged and actively participating in the communications process. Two-way communication is nothing new. But electronic communications creates a new form of many-to-many communications that lets geographically distributed groups communicate interactively and simultaneously through text, sound and video. You can hold inexpensive video conferences or press conferences from your desk, or conference with people at several desks located across the world. One of the burgeoning phenomena of the Internet is businesses and organizations sponsoring, supporting and moderating discussion groups about issues, products, strategies - anything of interest to the organization and its constituents. Sponsorships are also solicited for popular resources, such as indexes and other Internet search tools, and these provide a further communications and marketing opportunity. Many organizations are using electronic communications facilities, such as the World Wide Web, as internal communications tools to enhance team work. Many individuals at different locations can work on the same documents, hold meetings and integrate research findings. Electronic communications removes the power of communications gatekeepers to both positive and negative effects. Most organizations are used to controlling the messages that go out to its constituents through managers, spokespeople and others. But with the Internet, constituents begin to talk among themselves, requiring new approaches and a new emphasis on listening and reacting, not just talking. With the Internet you have the ability to transmit and receive large amounts of information quickly to and from individuals and workgroups around the world. This changes the way activists, for example, can galvanize communities, inform legislators and change public opinion. It changes the sources and depth of your constituents' knowledge levels. It also lets those constituents reach you with new kinds of communications they may never have attempted before. And these are only some of the changes we are seeing now. There will be unanticipated and ripple effects we can't imagine. For example, will electronic mail become a buffer to avoid communications or confrontations that might be better resolved in person? Will managers find themselves traveling more in order to gain the personal touch with members of distributed workgroups? How will organizations prepare themselves for this increased level of participatory constituent interaction? General Information For general white papers and journals about electronic communications, visit the following resources: Computer Mediated Communication Resources - John December's archive of additional materials. The Media History Project - An ambitious collection of materials relating to the history of human communication, including how it has changed as various technologies have been introduced. Electronic Mail Electronic Mail - An overview of electronic mail benefits and jargon. The Business Communications World Wide Web Resource Center - By guest editor Lance Cohen, Ph.D. This site looks at how business communications can help develop relationships and build businesses.        Listserv/discussion groups - Look for groups on subjects that interest you. Discussion groups are managed by various types of server software. Some popular software includes Listserv Listproc Majordomo They have different subscription instructions, so you'll want to know something about each. See James Milles' Mail Server Instructions. E-mail Information - Topics include how to find someone's e-mail address and how to address your Internet mail so that it reaches a user on a proprietary system. IRC Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) - Questions and answers about Internet Relay Chat. MUDS, MOOs, and Mushes are proliferating and are often used as virtual conference centers for collaboration and support. Academic papers are available about these virtual worlds. Teleconferencing with Packet Video is a very hot topic. Visit the following sites for more information. White papers Survey of desktop video products           Real Audio - Information as well as some examples of its use with ABC and NPR. PDF Portable Document Format allows users to view your materials just as they were created, whether or not the user has the application that created them. This preserves your formatting, fonts and other design elements.          Typical Components of Information Systems While information systems may differ in how they are used within an organization, they typically contain the following components: Hardware: Computer-based information systems use computer hardware, such as processors, monitors, keyboard and printers. Software: These are the programs used to organize, process and analyze data. Databases: Information systems work with data, organized into tables and files. Network: Different elements need to be connected to each other, especially if many different people in an organization use the same information system. Procedures: These describe how specific data are processed and analyzed in order to get the answers for which the information system is designed. The first four components are part of the general information technology (IT) of an organization. Procedures, the fifth component, are very specific to the information needed to answer a specific question. Different Types The many different types of information systems can be divided into categories based on where they are used in the hierarchy of an organization. This is best understood with an example. Consider a chain of bookstores. Every day, each store receives new books to put on the shelf, and many books are sold. All of these events are processed using a transaction processing system. This is used by store clerks and cashiers. Individual store managers have different tasks. They need to schedule staffing for their store, keep track of deliveries of new books and keep track of the finances. A store manager will use one or more management information systems for these tasks.                                                                                  The company has a number of stores, and so it also has more senior managers who need to make sure the entire chain keeps running smoothly. This includes tasks like the logistics of shipping books from a warehouse to the stores, keeping track of inventory and sales, and managing personnel. At this more senior level, managers would use decision support systems. At the executive level, the decisions are more strategic. For example, they may need to determine where to locate a new store, identify new markets and develop an online presence in addition to the brick-and-mortar stores. This would require the use of executive information systems. While this pyramid model is useful, some information systems might be used at different levels. In the case of the bookstore chain, the sales information from the transaction processing makes it all the way to the top in order to identify which products are doing well and which stores are doing better than others. Lesson Summary Let's review. Information consists of data that has been organized to help answer questions and to solve problems. An information system is the software that helps organize and analyze data. The purpose of an information system is to turn raw data into useful information that can be used for decision making in an organization. Many information systems are designed to support a particular process within an organization or to carry out very specific analysis. Learning Outcomes When you are finished, you should be able to: Explain how an information system uses data to produce useful information Recall the two main types of information systems List the components of an information system Identify some different categories of information systems    Improving information management practices is a key focus for many organisations, across both the public and private sectors. This is being driven by a range of factors, including a need to improve the efficiency of business processes, the demands of compliance regulations and the desire to deliver new services. In many cases, ‘information management’ has meant deploying new technology solutions, such as content or document management systems, data warehousing or portal applications. These projects have a poor track record of success, and most organisations are still struggling to deliver an integrated information management environment. Effective information management is not easy. There are many systems to integrate, a huge range of business needs to meet, and complex organisational (and cultural) issues to address. This article draws together a number of ‘critical success factors’ for information management projects. These do not provide an exhaustive list, but do offer a series of principles that can be used to guide the planning and implementation of information management activities. From the outset, it must be emphasised that this is not an article about technology. Rather, it is about the organisational, cultural and strategic factors that must be considered to improve the management of information within organisations.    Exploring information management ‘Information management’ is an umbrella term that encompasses all the systems and processes within an organisation for the creation and use of corporate information. In terms of technology, information management encompasses systems such as: web content management (CM) document management (DM) records management (RM) digital asset management (DAM) learning management systems (LM) learning content management systems (LCM) collaboration enterprise search and many more…  Information management is, however, much more than just technology. Equally importantly, it is about the business processes and practices that underpin the creation and use of information. It is also about the information itself, including the structure of information (‘information architecture’), metadata, content quality, and more. Information management therefore encompasses: people process technology content Each of these must be addressed if information management projects are to succeed. Information management challenges Organisations are confronted with many information management problems and issues. In many ways, the growth of electronic information (rather than paper) has only worsened these issues over the last decade or two. Common information management problems include: Large number of disparate information management systems. Little integration or coordination between information systems. Range of legacy systems requiring upgrading or replacement. Direct competition between information management systems. No clear strategic direction for the overall technology environment. Limited and patchy adoption of existing information systems by staff. Poor quality of information, including lack of consistency, duplication, and out-of-date information. Little recognition and support of information management by senior management. Limited resources for deploying, managing or improving information systems. Lack of enterprise-wide definitions for information types and values (no corporate-wide taxonomy). Large number of diverse business needs and issues to be addressed. Lack of clarity around broader organisational strategies and directions. Difficulties in changing working practices and processes of staff. Internal politics impacting on the ability to coordinate activities enterprise-wide.  Ten principles  ten key principles to ensure that information management activities are effective and successful: recognise (and manage) complexity focus on adoption deliver tangible & visible benefits prioritise according to business needs take a journey of a thousand steps provide strong leadership mitigate risks communicate extensively aim to deliver a seamless user experience choose the first project very carefully

Principle 1: recognise (and manage) complexity Organisations are very complex environments in which to deliver concrete solutions. As outlined above, there are many challenges that need to be overcome when planning and implementing information management projects. When confronted with this complexity, project teams often fall back upon approaches such as: Focusing on deploying just one technology in isolation. Purchasing a very large suite of applications from a single vendor, in the hope that this can be used to solve all information management problems at once. Rolling out rigid, standardised solutions across a whole organisation, even though individual business areas may have different needs. Forcing the use of a single technology system in all cases, regardless of whether it is an appropriate solution. Purchasing a product ‘for life’, even though business requirements will change over time. Fully centralising information management activities, to ensure that every activity is tightly controlled. All of these approaches will fail, as they are attempting to convert a complex set of needs and problems into simple (even simplistic) solutions. The hope is that the complexity can be limited or avoided when planning and deploying solutions. In practice, however, there is no way of avoiding the inherent complexities within organisations. New approaches to information management must therefore be found that recognise (and manage) this complexity. Organisations must stop looking for simple approaches, and must stop believing vendors when they offer ‘silver bullet’ technology solutions. Instead, successful information management is underpinned by strong leadership that defines a clear direction (principle 6). Many small activities should then be planned to address in parallel the many needs and issues (principle 5). Risks must then be identified and mitigated throughout the project (principle 7), to ensure that organisational complexities do not prevent the delivery of effective solutions. Principle 2: focus on adoption Information management systems are only successful if they are actually used by staff, and it is not sufficient to simply focus on installing the software centrally. In practice, most information management systems need the active participation of staff throughout the organisation. For example: Staff must save all key files into the document/records management system. Decentralised authors must use the content management system to regularly update the intranet. Lecturers must use the learning content management system to deliver e-learning packages to their students. Front-line staff must capture call details in the customer relationship management system. In all these cases, the challenge is to gain sufficient adoption to ensure that required information is captured in the system. Without a critical mass of usage, corporate repositories will not contain enough information to be useful. This presents a considerable change management challenge for information management projects. In practice, it means that projects must be carefully designed from the outset to ensure that sufficient adoption is gained. This may include: Identifying the ‘what’s in it for me’ factors for end users of the system. Communicating clearly to all staff the purpose and benefits of the project. Carefully targeting initial projects to build momentum for the project (see principle 10). Conducting extensive change management and cultural change activities throughout the project. Ensuring that the systems that are deployed are useful and usable for staff. These are just a few of the possible approaches, and they demonstrate the wide implications of needing to gain adoption by staff.  Principle 3: deliver tangible & visible benefits It is not enough to simply improve the management of information ‘behind the scenes’. While this will deliver real benefits, it will not drive the required cultural changes, or assist with gaining adoption by staff (principle 2). In many cases, information management projects initially focus on improving the productivity of publishers or information managers. While these are valuable projects, they are invisible to the rest of the organisation. When challenged, it can be hard to demonstrate the return on investment of these projects, and they do little to assist project teams to gain further funding. Instead, information management projects must always be designed so that they deliver tangible and visible benefits. Delivering tangible benefits involves identifying concrete business needs that must be met (principle 4). This allows meaningful measurement of the impact of the projects on the operation of the organisation. The projects should also target issues or needs that are very visible within the organisation. When solutions are delivered, the improvement should be obvious, and widely promoted throughout the organisation. For example, improving the information available to call centre staff can have a very visible and tangible impact on customer service. In contrast, creating a standard taxonomy for classifying information across systems is hard to quantify and rarely visible to general staff. This is not to say that ‘behind the scenes’ improvements are not required, but rather that they should always be partnered with changes that deliver more visible benefits. This also has a major impact on the choice of the initial activities conducted (principle 10). Principle 4: prioritise according to business needs It can be difficult to know where to start when planning information management projects. While some organisations attempt to prioritise projects according to the ‘simplicity’ of the technology to be deployed, this is not a meaningful approach. In particular, this often doesn’t deliver short-term benefits that are tangible and visible (principle 3). Instead of this technology-driven approach, the planning process should be turned around entirely, to drive projects based on their ability to address business needs. In this way, information management projects are targeted at the most urgent business needs or issues. These in turn are derived from the overall business strategy and direction for the organisation as a whole. For example, the rate of errors in home loan applications might be identified as a strategic issue for the organisation. A new system might therefore be put in place (along with other activities) to better manage the information that supports the processing of these applications. Alternatively, a new call centre might be in the process of being planned. Information management activities can be put in place to support the establishment of the new call centre, and the training of new staff.  Principle 5: take a journey of a thousand steps There is no single application or project that will address and resolve all the information management problems of an organisation. Where organisations look for such solutions, large and costly strategic plans are developed. Assuming the results of this strategic planning are actually delivered (which they often aren’t), they usually describe a long-term vision but give few clear directions for immediate actions. In practice, anyone looking to design the complete information management solution will be trapped by ‘analysis paralysis’: the inability to escape the planning process. Organisations are simply too complex to consider all the factors when developing strategies or planning activities. The answer is to let go of the desire for a perfectly planned approach. Instead, project teams should take a ‘journey of a thousand steps’. This approach recognises that there are hundreds (or thousands) of often small changes that are needed to improve the information management practices across an organisation. These changes will often be implemented in parallel. While some of these changes are organisation-wide, most are actually implemented at business unit (or even team) level. When added up over time, these numerous small changes have a major impact on the organisation. This is a very different approach to that typically taken in organisations, and it replaces a single large (centralised) project with many individual initiatives conducted by multiple teams. While this can be challenging to coordinate and manage, this ‘thousand steps’ approach recognises the inherent complexity of organisations (principle 1) and is a very effective way of mitigating risks (principle 7). It also ensures that ‘quick wins’ can be delivered early on (principle 3), and allows solutions to be targeted to individual business needs (principle 4).  Principle 6: provide strong leadership Successful information management is about organisational and cultural change, and this can only be achieved through strong leadership. The starting point is to create a clear vision of the desired outcomes of the information management strategy. This will describe how the organisation will operate, more than just describing how the information systems themselves will work. Effort must then be put into generating a sufficient sense of urgency to drive the deployment and adoption of new systems and processes. Stakeholders must also be engaged and involved in the project, to ensure that there is support at all levels in the organisation. This focus on leadership then underpins a range of communications activities (principle 8) that ensure that the organisation has a clear understanding of the projects and the benefits they will deliver. When projects are solely driven by the acquisition and deployment of new technology solutions, this leadership is often lacking. Without the engagement and support of key stakeholder outside the IT area, these projects often have little impact  Principle 7: mitigate risks Due to the inherent complexity of the environment within organisations (principle 1), there are many risks in implementing information management solutions. These risks include: selecting an inappropriate technology solution time and budget overruns changing business requirements technical issues, particularly relating to integrating systems failure to gain adoption by staff At the outset of planning an information management strategy, the risks should be clearly identified. An approach must then be identified for each risk, either avoiding or mitigating the risk. Risk management approaches should then be used to plan all aspects of the project, including the activities conducted and the budget spent. For example, a simple but effective way of mitigating risks is to spend less money. This might involve conducting pilot projects to identifying issues and potential solutions, rather than starting with enterprise-wide deployments. Principle 8: communicate extensively Extensive communication from the project team (and project sponsors) is critical for a successful information management initiative. This communication ensures that staff have a clear understanding of the project, and the benefits it will deliver. This is a pre-requisite for achieving the required level of adoption. With many projects happening simultaneously (principle 5), coordination becomes paramount. All project teams should devote time to work closely with each other, to ensure that activities and outcomes are aligned. In a complex environment, it is not possible to enforce a strict command-and-control approach to management (principle 1). Instead, a clear end point (‘vision’) must be created for the information management project, and communicated widely. This allows each project team to align themselves to the eventual goal, and to make informed decisions about the best approaches. For all these reasons, the first step in an information management project should be to develop a clear communications ‘message’. This should then be supported by a communications plan that describes target audiences, and methods of communication. Project teams should also consider establishing a ‘project site’ on the intranet as the outset, to provide a location for planning documents, news releases, and other updates.   Principle 9: aim to deliver a seamless user experience Users don’t understand systems. When presented with six different information systems, each containing one-sixth of what they want, they generally rely on a piece of paper instead (or ask the person next to them). Educating staff in the purpose and use of a disparate set of information systems is difficult, and generally fruitless. The underlying goal should therefore be to deliver a seamless user experience, one that hides the systems that the information is coming from. This is not to say that there should be one enterprise-wide system that contains all information. There will always be a need to have multiple information systems, but the information contained within them should be presented in a human-friendly way. In practice, this means: Delivering a single intranet (or equivalent) that gives access to all information and tools. Ensuring a consistent look-and-feel across all applications, including standard navigation and page layouts. Providing ‘single sign-on’ to all applications. Ultimately, it also means breaking down the distinctions between applications, and delivering tools and information along task and subject lines. For example, many organisations store HR procedures on the intranet, but require staff to log a separate ‘HR self-service’ application that provides a completely different menu structure and appearance. Improving on this, leave details should be located alongside the leave form itself. In this model, the HR application becomes a background system, invisible to the user. Care should also be taken, however, when looking to a silver-bullet solution for providing a seamless user experience. Despite the promises, portal applications do not automatically deliver this. Instead, a better approach may be to leverage the inherent benefits of the web platform. As long as the applications all look the same, the user will be unaware that they are accessing multiple systems and servers behind the scenes. Of course, achieving a truly seamless user experience is not a short-term goal. Plan to incrementally move towards this goal, delivering one improvement at a time. Principle 10: choose the first project very carefully The choice of the first project conducted as part of a broader information management strategy is critical. This project must be selected carefully, to ensure that it: demonstrates the value of the information management strategy builds momentum for future activities generates interest and enthusiasm from both end-users and stakeholders delivers tangible and visible benefits (principle 3) addresses an important or urgent business need (principle 4) can be clearly communicated to staff and stakeholders (principle 8) assists the project team in gaining further resources and support Actions speak louder than words. The first project is the single best (and perhaps only) opportunity to set the organisation on the right path towards better information management practices and technologies. The first project must therefore be chosen according to its ability to act as a ‘catalyst’ for further organisational and cultural changes. In practice, this often involves starting with one problem or one area of the business that the organisation as a whole would be interested in, and cares about. For example, starting by restructuring the corporate policies and procedures will generate little interest or enthusiasm. In contrast, delivering a system that greatly assists salespeople in the field would be something that could be widely promoted throughout the organization  Conclusion Implementing information technology solutions in a complex and ever-changing organisational environment is never easy. The challenges inherent in information management projects mean that new approaches need to be taken, if they are to succeed. This article has outlined ten key principles of effective information management. These focus on the organisational and cultural changes required to drive forward improvements. The also outline a pragmatic, step-by-step approach to implementing solutions that starts with addressing key needs and building support for further initiatives. A focus on adoption then ensures that staff actually use the solutions that are deployed. Of course, much more can be written on how to tackle information management projects. Future articles will further explore this topic, providing additional guidance and outlining concrete approaches that can be taken.  Telephone and electronic equipment The practice needs sufficient telephone and electronic equipment to support reliable and efficient communications. Privacy and confidentiality Some practices choose to communicate with patients using electronic means, such as email or SMS. Communication with patients via electronic means needs to be conducted with particular regard to the privacy and confidentiality                    =========== MA  THE  MATIC  IN  FORMAT  ELECTRONIC  SYSTEM ===========