Senin, 11 Maret 2019

burning function on a gasoline motor to supply energy for on the starter various kinds of energy supply for electronics and automotive as well as the effects in the starter AMNIMARJESLOW GOVERNMENT 91220017 XI XAM PIN PING HUNG CHOP 0209601024 Thankyume On Lord Jesus Blessing for The Starter I / O e- WET do PIT and CEll doing Rotated up JESS do it ___ Gen Mac Tech Zone e- Starter Energy on Electronic to built on Automotive






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equality of automotive components with electronic components :
the progress of the electronic component industry has penetrated into the automotive industry has been very necessary because the energy used is quite widely available from petroleum energy, in fact all component components in automatic systems can be replaced by independent electronic component components only need to study and discover component material electronic adjustment so that it can be conditioned on automotive components so that it has strong power for the needs of motion and conditions for long distances for vehicles .

the function & significance of the component electronic compare to automotive component :
  1. Capacitor in automotive ; we call condenser
  2. Resistor  in automotive ; we call Load as like lamp , switch .
  3. Diode  In automotive ; we call rectifier it was in dynamo starter
  4. Transistor In automotive ; we call regulator and amplification signal
  5. Inductor In automotive ; We call Coil
  6. Relay In automotive ; We call platinum and spark plugs
  7. Quartz Crystal In automotive ; We call alternator
all components of electronic components can be set energy and can be controlled by all instruments using the best and advanced electronic circuit engineering techniques such as automatic control and processor settings .

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                                                               Gen . Mac Tech Zone e- Transformation Component






                                                     Internal combustion engine
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An internal combustion engine (ICE) is a heat engine where the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal combustion engine, the expansion of the high-temperature and high-pressure gases produced by combustion applies direct force to some component of the engine. The force is applied typically to pistons, turbine blades, rotor or a nozzle. This force moves the component over a distance, transforming chemical energy into useful mechanical energy.
The first commercially successful internal combustion engine was created by Étienne Lenoir around 1859[1] and the first modern internal combustion engine was created in 1876 by Nikolaus Otto (see Otto engine).
The term internal combustion engine usually refers to an engine in which combustion is intermittent, such as the more familiar four-stroke and two-stroke piston engines, along with variants, such as the six-stroke piston engine and the Wankel rotary engine. A second class of internal combustion engines use continuous combustion: gas turbines, jet engines and most rocket engines, each of which are internal combustion engines on the same principle as previously described.Firearms are also a form of internal combustion engine.[2]
In contrast, in external combustion engines, such as steam or Stirling engines, energy is delivered to a working fluid not consisting of, mixed with, or contaminated by combustion products. Working fluids can be air, hot water, pressurized water or even liquid sodium, heated in a boiler. ICEs are usually powered by energy-dense fuels such as gasoline or diesel fuel, liquids derived from fossil fuels. While there are many stationary applications, most ICEs are used in mobile applications and are the dominant power supply for vehicles such as cars, aircraft, and boats.
Typically an ICE is fed with fossil fuels like natural gas or petroleum products such as gasoline, diesel fuel or fuel oil. There is a growing usage of renewable fuels like biodiesel for CI (compression ignition) engines and bioethanol or methanol for SI (spark ignition) engines. Hydrogen is sometimes used, and can be obtained from either fossil fuels or renewable energy.


                                         
                       Diagram of a cylinder as found in 4-stroke gasoline engines.:
C – crankshaft.
E – exhaust camshaft.
I – inlet camshaft.
P – piston.
R – connecting rod.
S – spark plug.
V – valves. red: exhaust, blue: intake.
W – cooling water jacket.
gray structure – engine block

                                      Applications

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Reciprocating engine as found inside a car
Reciprocating piston engines are by far the most common power source for land and water vehicles, including automobiles, motorcycles, ships and to a lesser extent, locomotives (some are electrical but most use Diesel engines). Rotary engines of the Wankel design are used in some automobiles, aircraft and motorcycles.
Where high power-to-weight ratios are required, internal combustion engines appear in the form of combustion turbines or Wankel engines. Powered aircraft typically uses an ICE which may be a reciprocating engine. Airplanes can instead use jet engines and helicopters can instead employ turboshafts; both of which are types of turbines. In addition to providing propulsion, airliners may employ a separate ICE as an auxiliary power unit. Wankel engines are fitted to many unmanned aerial vehicles.


Big Diesel generator used for backup power
ICEs drive some of the large electric generators that power electrical grids. They are found in the form of combustion turbines in combined cycle power plants with a typical electrical output in the range of 100 MW to 1 GW. The high temperature exhaust is used to boil and superheat water to run a steam turbine. Thus, the efficiency is higher because more energy is extracted from the fuel than what could be extracted by the combustion turbine alone. In combined cycle power plants efficiencies in the range of 50% to 60% are typical. In a smaller scale Diesel generators are used for backup power and for providing electrical power to areas not connected to an electric grid.
Small engines (usually 2‐stroke gasoline engines) are a common power source for lawnmowers, string trimmers, chain saws, leafblowers, pressure washers, snowmobiles, jet skis, outboard motors, mopeds, and motorcycles.

Classification

There are several possible ways to classify internal combustion engines.

Reciprocating

By number of strokes
By type of ignition
By mechanical/thermodynamical cycle (these 2 cycles do not encompass all reciprocating engines, and are infrequently used):

Rotary

Continuous combustion

Reciprocating engines

Structure



Bare cylinder block of a V8 engine


Piston, piston ring, gudgeon pin and connecting rod
The base of a reciprocating internal combustion engine is the engine block, which is typically made of cast iron or aluminium. The engine block contains the cylinders. In engines with more than one cylinder they are usually arranged either in 1 row (straight engine) or 2 rows (boxer engine or V engine); 3 rows are occasionally used (W engine) in contemporary engines, and other engine configurations are possible and have been used. Single cylinder engines are common for motorcycles and in small engines of machinery. Water-cooled engines contain passages in the engine block where cooling fluid circulates (the water jacket). Some small engines are air-cooled, and instead of having a water jacket the cylinder block has fins protruding away from it to cool by directly transferring heat to the air. The cylinder walls are usually finished by honing to obtain a cross hatch, which is better able to retain the oil. A too rough surface would quickly harm the engine by excessive wear on the piston.
The pistons are short cylindrical parts which seal one end of the cylinder from the high pressure of the compressed air and combustion products and slide continuously within it while the engine is in operation. The top wall of the piston is termed its crown and is typically flat or concave. Some two-stroke engines use pistons with a deflector head. Pistons are open at the bottom and hollow except for an integral reinforcement structure (the piston web). When an engine is working the gas pressure in the combustion chamber exerts a force on the piston crown which is transferred through its web to a gudgeon pin. Each piston has rings fitted around its circumference that mostly prevent the gases from leaking into the crankcase or the oil into the combustion chamber. A ventilation system drives the small amount of gas that escape past the pistons during normal operation (the blow-by gases) out of the crankcase so that it does not accumulate contaminating the oil and creating corrosion. In two-stroke gasoline engines the crankcase is part of the air–fuel path and due to the continuous flow of it they do not need a separate crankcase ventilation system.


Valve train above a Diesel engine cylinder head. This engine uses rocker arms but no pushrods.
The cylinder head is attached to the engine block by numerous bolts or studs. It has several functions. The cylinder head seals the cylinders on the side opposite to the pistons; it contains short ducts (the ports) for intake and exhaust and the associated intake valves that open to let the cylinder be filled with fresh air and exhaust valves that open to allow the combustion gases to escape. However, 2-stroke crankcase scavenged engines connect the gas ports directly to the cylinder wall without poppet valves; the piston controls their opening and occlusion instead. The cylinder head also holds the spark plug in the case of spark ignition engines and the injector for engines that use direct injection. All CI engines use fuel injection, usually direct injection but some engines instead use indirect injection. SI engines can use a carburetor or fuel injection as port injection or direct injection. Most SI engines have a single spark plug per cylinder but some have 2. A head gasket prevents the gas from leaking between the cylinder head and the engine block. The opening and closing of the valves is controlled by one or several camshafts and springs—or in some engines—a desmodromic mechanism that uses no springs. The camshaft may press directly the stem of the valve or may act upon a rocker arm, again, either directly or through a pushrod.


Engine block seen from below. The cylinders, oil spray nozzle and half of the main bearings are clearly visible.
The crankcase is sealed at the bottom with a sump that collects the falling oil during normal operation to be cycled again. The cavity created between the cylinder block and the sump houses a crankshaft that converts the reciprocating motion of the pistons to rotational motion. The crankshaft is held in place relative to the engine block by main bearings, which allow it to rotate. Bulkheads in the crankcase form a half of every main bearing; the other half is a detachable cap. In some cases a single main bearing deck is used rather than several smaller caps. A connecting rod is connected to offset sections of the crankshaft (the crankpins) in one end and to the piston in the other end through the gudgeon pin and thus transfers the force and translates the reciprocating motion of the pistons to the circular motion of the crankshaft. The end of the connecting rod attached to the gudgeon pin is called its small end, and the other end, where it is connected to the crankshaft, the big end. The big end has a detachable half to allow assembly around the crankshaft. It is kept together to the connecting rod by removable bolts.
The cylinder head has an intake manifold and an exhaust manifold attached to the corresponding ports. The intake manifold connects to the air filter directly, or to a carburetor when one is present, which is then connected to the air filter. It distributes the air incoming from these devices to the individual cylinders. The exhaust manifold is the first component in the exhaust system. It collects the exhaust gases from the cylinders and drives it to the following component in the path. The exhaust system of an ICE may also include a catalytic converter and muffler. The final section in the path of the exhaust gases is the tailpipe.

4-stroke engines



Diagram showing the operation of a 4-stroke SI engine. Labels:
1 ‐ Induction
2 ‐ Compression
3 ‐ Power
4 ‐ Exhaust
The top dead center (TDC) of a piston is the position where it is nearest to the valves; bottom dead center (BDC) is the opposite position where it is furthest from them. A stroke is the movement of a piston from TDC to BDC or vice versa, together with the associated process. While an engine is in operation, the crankshaft rotates continuously at a nearly constant speed. In a 4-stroke ICE, each piston experiences 2 strokes per crankshaft revolution in the following order. Starting the description at TDC, these are:
  1. Intake, induction or suction: The intake valves are open as a result of the cam lobe pressing down on the valve stem. The piston moves downward increasing the volume of the combustion chamber and allowing air to enter in the case of a CI engine or an air fuel mix in the case of SI engines that do not use direct injection. The air or air-fuel mixture is called the charge in any case.
  2. Compression: In this stroke, both valves are closed and the piston moves upward reducing the combustion chamber volume which reaches its minimum when the piston is at TDC. The piston performs work on the charge as it is being compressed; as a result its pressure, temperature and density increase; an approximation to this behavior is provided by the ideal gas law. Just before the piston reaches TDC, ignition begins. In the case of a SI engine, the spark plug receives a high voltage pulse that generates the spark which gives it its name and ignites the charge. In the case of a CI engine the fuel injector quickly injects fuel into the combustion chamber as a spray; the fuel ignites due to the high temperature.
  3. Power or working stroke: The pressure of the combustion gases pushes the piston downward, generating more work than it required to compress the charge. Complementary to the compression stroke, the combustion gases expand and as a result their temperature, pressure and density decreases. When the piston is near to BDC the exhaust valve opens. The combustion gases expand irreversibly due to the leftover pressure—in excess of back pressure, the gauge pressure on the exhaust port—; this is called the blowdown.
  4. Exhaust: The exhaust valve remains open while the piston moves upward expelling the combustion gases. For naturally aspirated engines a small part of the combustion gases may remain in the cylinder during normal operation because the piston does not close the combustion chamber completely; these gases dissolve in the next charge. At the end of this stroke, the exhaust valve closes, the intake valve opens, and the sequence repeats in the next cycle. The intake valve may open before the exhaust valve closes to allow better scavenging.

2-stroke engines

 2-stroke engine

The defining characteristic of this kind of engine is that each piston completes a cycle every crankshaft revolution. The 4 processes of intake, compression, power and exhaust take place in only 2 strokes so that it is not possible to dedicate a stroke exclusively for each of them. Starting at TDC the cycle consist of:
  1. Power: While the piston is descending the combustion gases perform work on it, as in a 4-stroke engine. The same thermodynamic considerations about the expansion apply.
  2. Scavenging: Around 75° of crankshaft rotation before BDC the exhaust valve or port opens, and blowdown occurs. Shortly thereafter the intake valve or transfer port opens. The incoming charge displaces the remaining combustion gases to the exhaust system and a part of the charge may enter the exhaust system as well. The piston reaches BDC and reverses direction. After the piston has traveled a short distance upwards into the cylinder the exhaust valve or port closes; shortly the intake valve or transfer port closes as well.
  3. Compression: With both intake and exhaust closed the piston continues moving upwards compressing the charge and performing a work on it. As in the case of a 4-stroke engine, ignition starts just before the piston reaches TDC and the same consideration on the thermodynamics of the compression on the charge.
While a 4-stroke engine uses the piston as a positive displacement pump to accomplish scavenging taking 2 of the 4 strokes, a 2-stroke engine uses the last part of the power stroke and the first part of the compression stroke for combined intake and exhaust. The work required to displace the charge and exhaust gases comes from either the crankcase or a separate blower. For scavenging, expulsion of burned gas and entry of fresh mix, two main approaches are described: Loop scavenging, and Uniflow scavenging, SAE news published in the 2010s that 'Loop Scavenging' is better under any circumstance than Uniflow Scavenging.

Crankcase scavenged



Diagram of a crankcase scavenged 2-stroke engine in operation
Some SI engines are crankcase scavenged and do not use poppet valves. Instead the crankcase and the part of the cylinder below the piston is used as a pump. The intake port is connected to the crankcase through a reed valve or a rotary disk valve driven by the engine. For each cylinder a transfer port connects in one end to the crankcase and in the other end to the cylinder wall. The exhaust port is connected directly to the cylinder wall. The transfer and exhaust port are opened and closed by the piston. The reed valve opens when the crankcase pressure is slightly below intake pressure, to let it be filled with a new charge; this happens when the piston is moving upwards. When the piston is moving downwards the pressure in the crankcase increases and the reed valve closes promptly, then the charge in the crankcase is compressed. When the piston is moving upwards, it uncovers the exhaust port and the transfer port and the higher pressure of the charge in the crankcase makes it enter the cylinder through the transfer port, blowing the exhaust gases. Lubrication is accomplished by adding 2-stroke oil to the fuel in small ratios. Petroil refers to the mix of gasoline with the aforesaid oil. This kind of 2-stroke engines has a lower efficiency than comparable 4-strokes engines and release a more polluting exhaust gases for the following conditions:
  • They use a total-loss lubrication system: all the lubricating oil is eventually burned along with the fuel.
  • There are conflicting requirements for scavenging: On one side, enough fresh charge needs to be introduced in each cycle to displace almost all the combustion gases but introducing too much of it means that a part of it gets in the exhaust.
  • They must use the transfer port(s) as a carefully designed and placed nozzle so that a gas current is created in a way that it sweeps the whole cylinder before reaching the exhaust port so as to expel the combustion gases, but minimize the amount of charge exhausted. 4-stroke engines have the benefit of forcibly expelling almost all of the combustion gases because during exhaust the combustion chamber is reduced to its minimum volume. In crankcase scavenged 2-stroke engines, exhaust and intake are performed mostly simultaneously and with the combustion chamber at its maximum volume.
The main advantage of 2-stroke engines of this type is mechanical simplicity and a higher power-to-weight ratio than their 4-stroke counterparts. Despite having twice as many power strokes per cycle, less than twice the power of a comparable 4-stroke engine is attainable in practice.
In the US, 2-stroke engines were banned for road vehicles due to the pollution. Off-road only motorcycles are still often 2-stroke but are rarely road legal. However, many thousands of 2-stroke lawn maintenance engines are in use.

Blower scavenged



Diagram of uniflow scavenging
Using a separate blower avoids many of the shortcomings of crankcase scavenging, at the expense of increased complexity which means a higher cost and an increase in maintenance requirement. An engine of this type uses ports or valves for intake and valves for exhaust, except opposed piston engines, which may also use ports for exhaust. The blower is usually of the Roots-type but other types have been used too. This design is commonplace in CI engines, and has been occasionally used in SI engines.
CI engines that use a blower typically use uniflow scavenging. In this design the cylinder wall contains several intake ports placed uniformly spaced along the circumference just above the position that the piston crown reaches when at BDC. An exhaust valve or several like that of 4-stroke engines is used. The final part of the intake manifold is an air sleeve which feeds the intake ports. The intake ports are placed at an horizontal angle to the cylinder wall (I.e: they are in plane of the piston crown) to give a swirl to the incoming charge to improve combustion. The largest reciprocating IC are low speed CI engines of this type; they are used for marine propulsion (see marine diesel engine) or electric power generation and achieve the highest thermal efficiencies among internal combustion engines of any kind. Some Diesel-electric locomotive engines operate on the 2-stroke cycle. The most powerful of them have a brake power of around 4.5 MW or 6,000 HP. The EMD SD90MAC class of locomotives use a 2-stroke engine. The comparable class GE AC6000CW whose prime mover has almost the same brake power uses a 4-stroke engine.
An example of this type of engine is the Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C turbocharged 2-stroke Diesel, used in large container ships. It is the most efficient and powerful reciprocating internal combustion engine in the world with a thermal efficiency over 50%. For comparison, the most efficient small four-stroke engines are around 43% thermally-efficient (SAE 900648); size is an advantage for efficiency due to the increase in the ratio of volume to surface area.

Fuels and oxidizers

All internal combustion engines depend on combustion of a chemical fuel, typically with oxygen from the air (though it is possible to inject nitrous oxide to do more of the same thing and gain a power boost). The combustion process typically results in the production of a great quantity of heat, as well as the production of steam and carbon dioxide and other chemicals at very high temperature; the temperature reached is determined by the chemical make up of the fuel and oxidisers (see stoichiometry), as well as by the compression and other factors.

Fuels

The most common modern fuels are made up of hydrocarbons and are derived mostly from fossil fuels (petroleum). Fossil fuels include diesel fuel, gasoline and petroleum gas, and the rarer use of propane. Except for the fuel delivery components, most internal combustion engines that are designed for gasoline use can run on natural gas or liquefied petroleum gases without major modifications. Large diesels can run with air mixed with gases and a pilot diesel fuel ignition injection. Liquid and gaseous biofuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel (a form of diesel fuel that is produced from crops that yield triglycerides such as soybean oil), can also be used. Engines with appropriate modifications can also run on hydrogen gas, wood gas, or charcoal gas, as well as from so-called producer gas made from other convenient biomass. Experiments have also been conducted using powdered solid fuels, such as the magnesium injection cycle.
Presently, fuels used include:
Even fluidized metal powders and explosives have seen some use

Starting

 Starter motor



Electric starter as used in automobiles
Internal combustion engines must have their cycles started. In reciprocating engines this is accomplished by turning the crankshaft (Wankel Rotor Shaft) which induces the cycles of intake, compression, combustion, and exhaust. The first engines were started with a turn of their flywheels, while the first vehicle (the Daimler Reitwagen) was started with a hand crank. All ICE engined automobiles were started with hand cranks until Charles Kettering developed the electric starter for automobiles. This method is now the most widely used, even among non-automobiles.
As diesel engines have become larger and their mechanisms heavier, air starters have come into use. This is due to the lack of torque in electric starters. Air starters work by pumping compressed air into the cylinders of an engine to start it turning.
Two-wheeled vehicles may have their engines started in one of four ways:
  • By pedaling, as on a bicycle
  • By pushing the vehicle and then engaging the clutch, known as "run-and-bump starting"
  • By kicking downward on a single pedal, known as "kick starting"
  • By an electric starter, as in cars
There are also starters where a spring is compressed by a crank motion and then used to start an engine.
Some small engines use a pull-rope mechanism called "recoil starting," as the rope rewinds itself after it has been pulled out to start the engine. This method is commonly used in pushed lawn mowers and other settings where only a small amount of torque is needed to turn an engine over.
Turbine engines are frequently started by an electric motor or by compressed air.


                               Energy and Chemical Stability
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Natural systems left to themselves move towards states of lower potential energy. For example, water flows down a hill or a ball rolls down a hill, if free to do so. States of lower potential energy are more stable. As a rule, the lower the potential energy of a system, the more stable it is. As a result, left to themselves, systems attempt to reach the configuration with the lowest energy possible under a given set of constraints. To change the state of a system from lower to higher potential energy, one must therefore supply energy to the system.
less stable
more stable
higher potential energy
lower potential energy
less bound
more bound
As more stable states have lower potential energy, we can get energy for use by moving a system to a lower potential energy. This is the basis for all energy transformation technologies.
Chemical Stability
Chemicals and their reactions are the medium through which nature stores and transforms energy. This energy is partly derived from the sun's pure electromagnetic energy that reaches the Earth as solar radiation, and partly from the energy stored in chemicals as potential energy in the chemical bonds. Recall the food chain diagram from the Introduction. Photosynthesis is an example of how nature stores and transforms energy via chemical bonds. Chemical bonds are essentially the phenomenon that atoms of elements stay close to each other, forming a compound, because that puts them in a lower (more stable) state of total energy.

These lower energy configurations of elements happen when the elements get an electronic configuration similar to the nearest inert gas. Electronic configurations of inert (noble) gases are the most stable in a given period (horizontal segment) of the Periodic Table. In fact, that is why these specific elements do not "need" to react with anything and are, therefore, chemically inert (or "noble"). These elements have no "need" to combine because their electron shells are completely filled with electrons. The noble gases are helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe), and radon (Rn). Chemical activities of the elements are simplest to predict when they are close to the inert gases in the periodic table.
 
           
Lithium and sodium would tend to "lose" one electron to become more stable (more like the closest inert element). They can do this, for example, by combining with elements that can gain stability by adding one electron to their shell -- elements such as F and Cl. These pairs therefore favor ionic bonds, in which the electron is actually transferred.
When similar atoms such as H or O or N come together they can gain stability by sharing electrons in a covalent bond. Shared electrons spend time with either of the H atoms in H2 for equal amounts of time, for instance. In a case of a covalent bond such as those in H2O, however, the electrons spend more time on the average in the neighborhood of the oxygen.
The water molecule, which has an angle of 105° between the two H-O bonds, is therefore a polar molecule, being more negative at the oxygen end of the molecule, because the negatively charged electrons spend more time near the oxygen atom.
Nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen atoms go to more stable configurations by forming the diatomic gases, N2, H2, and O2 respectively rather than remain in the atomic form: N, H, and O. When hydrogen atoms are produced in any reaction, pairs of these hydrogen atoms form covalent bonds with each other so that each has the helium (nearest inert gas) configuration at least a fraction of the time. Hydrogen has one electron and needs a total of two to be like He. So two hydrogen atoms share a pair of electrons, each belonging to one of the original atoms, thus forming H2. Schematically, it could be written as HxxH (x representing an electron). This schema is represented by H-H where the single line represents a bond consisting of two shared electrons.
Again, the same can be said for oxygen and nitrogen. Oxygen has an atomic number of 8, and has four electrons in the outermost shell. It needs two more to be like neon (nearest inert gas).
Exercise:
Nitrogen has __ electrons in the outer shell, needs __ to be more like ___
Carbon has __ electrons in the outer shell, needs __ to be more like ____
Oxygen has __ electrons in the outer shell, needs __ to be more like ____
Phosphorus has __ electrons in the outer shell, needs __ to be more like __
Hydrogen has __ electron in the outer shell, needs __ to be more like _____
answers
Following this logic, we can figure out the most frequent bond configurations for carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, hydrogen, with 4, 3, 2, 3 and 1 bonds respectively, as schematically in Figure 14.
 
Figure 14: Bond configurations for
carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and hydrogen.
Energy transformations using chemical sources consist of changing the mutual configurations of these compounds accompanied by the release of energy, which we can then use for something. Chemical bonds "contain" energy that may be released when the bonds are made.

Representation of Bonds

Each atom has a number of bonds coming out of it equal to the number of electrons it shares in covalent bonds. So the line of a bond represents two electrons in activity, one from each of the two atoms it bonds. Thus for H2, H-H is really H:H, with each hydrogen atom contributing one electron to the bond.

Let's look at the example of nitrogen (atomic number = 7). Nitrogen, being 3 electrons short of its nearest inert gas (neon, atomic no. = 10), tries to bond so as to share 3 of it's electrons with other atoms bonding with it, in order to get a complete shell of 10 whenever possible. Thus it may share electrons with another N atom (forming N2), or with hydrogen (forming NH3).
 
                
Similarly, carbon can bond with four hydrogens to form CH4 (a gas called methane), or with two oxygen atoms to form CO2 as depicted above. Note that we always have four bonds coming out of carbon, one out of hydrogen, and one out of oxygen. Look at their position in the periodic table to see why this is so. Atoms in the middle of the Periodic Table and their bonding become more complicated, and we will not need to deal with them here.
Carbon is the basis for all our life forms. It is a very versatile atom because of its capability to form four bonds. Depending on the amount of hydrogen available to bond, and the temperature and pressure conditions, carbon can form a plethora of compounds with hydrogen alone. One such family is the hydrocarbons, important in our context because they are the basis of fossil fuels.
Note how some of these compounds have double and triple bonds between carbons. This happens when carbon and hydrogen combine under circumstances in which there is not enough hydrogen to satisfy all four bonds of each carbon. For example, if there is plenty of hydrogen to combine with carbon, we get CH4 or C2H6 (Ethane), with all single bonds. With less hydrogen we get C2H4 or C2H2 (less hydrogen for the same number of C atoms). C2H4 has a double bond between the carbons, and C2H2 has a triple bond. Compounds with double and triple bonds are called unsaturated, while single bond compounds like C2H6 are said to be saturated. Unsaturated compounds are more reactive than saturated compounds because not all the C atoms are bonded to four other atoms. Hydrocarbons are not the only compounds that can be unsaturated. Carbon monoxide is a good example of an unsaturated compound, "looking" for another oxygen atom to form CO2, a more saturated compound. When carbon (in coal or wood, for example) burns in an environment with insufficient oxygen, it forms CO which is deadly when breathed in. This is the reason to ensure plenty of access to fresh air when we have a fireplace or running car engine.
Note that many representations are two-dimensional, and that in actuality, the electrons forming the bonds are distributed in three dimensions. In a compound like CH4, the carbon is in the middle of a tetrahedron with the 4 H atoms at the vectors.


 
 
Similarly there can also be C3H8 (propane), C4H10 (butane), C5H12 (pentane) and so on. When a formula is written as CH4 just showing the proportion of atoms, it is called an empirical formula. A single empirical formula may represent different compounds because the structures may be different for the same number of atoms combining.
Try drawing propane, butane, and pentane. Note that there are always four bonds coming from carbon. The linear structures are called aliphatic hydrocarbons. In addition to the linear hydrocarbon molecules, hydrocarbons may also be formed into ring structures. The ring structure possesses the property that enables us to smell these compounds! So they are called aromatic hydrocarbons. The simplest aromatic hydrocarbon is C6H6, benzene. The structure of benzene was long a puzzle in chemistry, with chemists wondering what the structural formula for C6H6 could be. They knew the empirical formula was C6H6. It is said that the great organic chemist Kekulé, who had been wondering about this, dreamed one night of a snake swallowing its tail and was inspired to draw the ring structure! Note the alternating single and double bonds, a clever way of ensuring four bonds from each carbon shell.
The versatility of carbon in forming bonds, ring structures and various configurations is the basis of life on our planet. The chemistry of carbon compounds is therefore called organic chemistry. More complicated carbons compounds are described in the Ecological System and Materials System. For now, let us look at some additional aromatic and aliphatic compounds, and note some aspects that are relevant to energy storage and release.
Aliphatic hydrocarbons are the basis of fossil fuels. All saturated hydrocarbons react with oxygen at high temperatures to form carbon dioxide and water, and give off energy. This oxidation reaction is the basis of the internal combustion engine. Gasoline normally contains hydrocarbons from C6 to C18, a mixture of over 100 compounds! An example reaction of the combustion of a hydrocarbon is:
C7H16 + 11O2 7CO2 + 8H2O + energy
"Burning" (or a combustion reaction) consists of combining with oxygen at high temperatures. The combustion reaction of acetylene (C2H2) with oxygen gives off such a large amount of energy that it is used as a welder's torch.
Ring compounds do not play as large a role in energy production but often occur as byproducts or waste products. These polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH's) pose a serious pollution problem.
Ring compounds, based on the benzene ring, are so common in biochemistry that we just draw to represent C6H6. Adding one more carbon and two hydrogens to the benzene ring gives us C7H8 which is methyl benzene or toluene (at right).
Ring compounds can get very complicated. Several organic compounds playing an important role in our physiology are shown in the Ecological System.
Chemical Energy Release and Bond Energies
The amount of energy released when a bond is formed between atoms is called the bond energy. Bond energies represent a state of potential chemical energy. We can get energy from a system as it moves from a state of higher potential energy to one of lower potential energy (e.g. water falling). Chemical reactions in which the compounds formed after a reaction (called products) have lower total bond energy than the reactants can release chemical energy. Such reactions in which energy is given off are called exothermic (or more correctly, exoergic) reactions. Conversely, reactions that absorb energy are said to be endothermic.

Table 8 gives the energies for bonds we will commonly encounter. The table defines these energies in units of kcal/mole. A mole is an abbreviation for "gram-molecular weight" of a substance.
BOND
Energy
(kcal/mole)
H-H
104
C-H
99
C-C
83
C=C
146
CC
200
O-O
35
O=O
119
O-H
111
C-O
86
C=O
177
 
BOND
Energy
(kcal/mole)
H-F
135
H-Cl
103
H-Br
87
H-I
71
N-N
39
NN
225
N-H
93
Cl-Cl
58
Br-Br
46
I-I
35
Table 8: Bond Energies.
(the bond energy is expressed in kcal/mole.)
Let us see what the energy values in Table 8 mean. The bond energy of H-H is 104 kcal/mole. This means that when hydrogen atoms combine to form molecular hydrogen H2, represented by the reaction H + H H2, for every mole (2g) of H2 formed, 104 kcal of energy are released. Conversely it takes 104 kcal to break apart a mole (6 x 1023) of hydrogen molecules. From this we can draw a simple chemical energy level diagram for the above reactions, analogous to Figure 12 of gravitational potential energy.
 
 
One mole of an H2 (2g) molecule has 104 kcal total potential energy less than 2 g of H atoms. This is why when H atoms are formed in a reaction, and these atoms are the only atoms available, they combine to form H2 (roll down the potential energy "hill" towards a more stable state). In forming the H-H bond, 104 kcal of energy are released for every 2 g (6.02 x 1023 molecules) of hydrogen gas (H2) formed. Similarly oxygen, and nitrogen exist as O2 and N2 rather than in the atomic form as O and N. So whenever we say hydrogen, oxygen, or nitrogen gas, we mean H2, O2, N2. For H, O, N we specifically say atomic hydrogen, atomic oxygen, and atomic nitrogen.
Science Notes: Chemical Formations
Formation of Ammonia (NH3) as Example
Let us look at a more complicated example of the formation of a molecule. Just as the energy released by water falling can be captured, we can find ways to capture chemical energy. Let us look at a more complicated reaction: the formation of ammonia. Nitrogen gas (N2) and hydrogen gas (H2) can be made to combine to form NH3, or ammonia gas. As we proceed, look for the answers to these questions: Is the reaction exothermic? How many kilograms of hydrogen are needed to produce one kilogram of ammonia?

The reaction is N2 + 3H2 2NH3
This equation says that one mole of N2 requires three moles of H2 for a complete reaction, and this would then yield two moles of NH3. Note that we can also say that one molecule of N2 reacts with three molecules of H2 to yield two molecules of ammonia (NH3). But the table gives energies in units of kcal/mole, which is why it is easier to work with moles. The energy involved in the reaction involving just one or two molecules of ammonia is too small.
The following table contains the variety of ways in which you can write the reaction that forms ammonia. All the descriptions below are equivalent. The atomic masses are rounded off values from the Periodic Table.
Nitrogen
+
Hydrogen
Ammonia
N2
+
3H2
2NH3
 
+
3 H-H
2NH3
1 mole of N2
+
3 moles of H2
2 moles of ammonia
28 g of N
+
6 g of H
34 g ammonia
What are the energies of the reactions? In order to get the molecular structure of ammonia, we have to break one NN bond and three H - H bonds. This requires that we supply energy to break the bonds. From Table 8, we get the bond energies:
NN
225 kcal/mole
H - H
104 kcal/mole
N - H
94 kcal/mole
To form each molecule of NH3, we break one bond of N2 and three of H2, and then three N - H bonds form to make NH3. To calculate energy released (or absorbed) in the reaction, we have to calculate the energy needed to break the bonds of N2 and H2, and the energy released when the atoms rearrange to form NH3.
Energy required to break
the bonds of N2, 3H2
Energy released forming
the bond 2NH3
N2
:
1 mole x 225 kcal/mole
=
225
2NH3
:
2 moles x (3 x 93 kcal/mole) =
2 moles x 279 kcal/mole =
558
3H2
:
3 moles x 104 kcal/mole
=
312
total energy released
=
558 kcal
total energy absorbed
=
537 kcal
 
558 kcal - 537 kcal = 21 net kcal released for 2 moles of NH2 formed, so the net energy released is 10.5 kcal/mole of ammonia formed.
More energy is released than absorbed in the formation of ammonia, so this reaction is exothermic. We can also say that 10.5 kcal are released when 17g of ammonia are formed. The energy level diagram here is more complex than that for the H + H = H2 reaction because of the steps involved.
 
 
For this reaction, we had to put in some energy to "activate" the reaction, which was the energy required to break the N2 and H2 bonds. N2 and H2 brought together with no addition of energy would not spontaneously react. This is analogous to our striking a match to start the burning of coal. The energy required to start the reaction is called activation energy. Then, left to themselves, the N and H form bonds to release 568 calories.
What is a corresponding example with the gravitational force?
Formation of Water (H2O) as Example
Hydrogen and oxygen combine to form water. Which is more stable -- hydrogen and oxygen gas separately, or in combination as water?

Write equation and balance:
2H2 + O2 2H2O
amountselement element compound
molecules
2 molecules hydrogen
+
1 molecule
oxygen
2 molecules water
moles
2 moles hydrogen
+
1 mole
oxygen
2 moles of water
grams
4 g hydrogen
+
32 g oxygen
36g water
kilograms
4kg H2
+
32 kg O2
36 kg water
1. Is the reaction exothermic or endothermic?
2. Which is more stable, hydrogen gas and oxygen gas separately or combined chemically as water? Explain.
Structural formula:
2 H-H + O=O 2 H-O-H
(drawn as linear although molecule is not)
Bonds: break old (spend energy), recombine to form new bonds (release energy).
Break 2 H-H, break O=O and in recombination, 4 H-O bonds are made and release energy. Using the bond energies of H-H 104 kcal/mole, O-O 119 kcal/mole, and H-O 111kcal/mole from Table 8, we can see how much energy is released when bonds are broken and formed.
BONDS BROKEN
 
BONDS FORMED
Bonds
# of bonds
Energy Required
Bonds
# of bonds
Energy Released
H-H
2
208 kcal
H-O
4
444 kcal
O=O
1
119 kcal
Total

327 kcal required
Total
444 kcal released

 
 
Energy released is greater than energy required to break bonds so there is a net energy release. The reaction is exothermic. The amount of energy released is 444 kcal minus 327 kcal which equals 117 kcal per mole of oxygen burnt or:

444 kcal - 327 kcal = 117 kcal per mole of oxygen burnt
58.5 kcal/mole of hydrogen burnt or 58.5 kcal/mole water formed.
117 kcal for 36g of oxygen; OR
58.5 kcal per 2 g hydrogen; OR
58.5 kcal released when 18 g water formed
58.5 x 1000 = 5,850 kcal of energy released when 18kg water formed

5,850/18 = 325 kcal per kg water formed. The energy released (or absorbed) per mole of the product is called "the heat of reaction". Thus the heat of reaction of water is above 58.5 kcal/mole
(All of the above statements are equivalent.)
The energy released per unit mass may also be calculated in Joules. When we talk about released energy as the output of a power plant, Joules are the customary units; therefore it is often necessary to convert the energy from kcal to Joules.
Kilocalories are units of heat. 4,190 kilojoules make 1 kilocalorie. So, multiply kilocalories by 4,190 to convert to kilojoules. This is necessary to convert heat (or chemical energy) units to work (or mechanical energy) units. Recall that these two systems of units evolved separately. Heat units were used by chemists and chemical engineers and mechanical units by physicists and mechanical engineers.
325 x 4,190 = 1,361,750 kJ of energy is released per kg water formed. This reaction can theoretically do 1,361,750 kJ of work. We usually get less useful work because of Second Law of Thermodynamics--some energy is lost as heat.
 

Exercise:
In each of the following reactions:
  1. Name the product.
  2. Balance the reaction
  3. Write the moles of each component
  4. Say whether the reaction is endothermic or exothermic
  5. Say whether the system is stable before or after the reaction
 Reaction
Heat of Reaction(kcal/mole)
1. H2 + O2   H2
-58.5
2. N2 + O2   NO2 
+21.6
3. C + H2    C2H6    
-20.2
4. C + H2   C3H8 
-24.8
5. N2 + H2   NH3  
-11.0
The ( - ) sign means that there is a net energy release when the compound is formed; that is, the final product is lower in energy or the reaction is exothermic.
 
Science Notes: Chemistry of Fossil Fuels
Combustion and Energy Release
The chemistry principles previously described can be used to describe the burning of methane (CH4, marsh or natural gas), or of carbon in coal. Combustion involves combinations of the fuel with oxygen.
Thus,
C + O2 CO2
CH4 +
2O2 CO2 + 2H2O
We can show that these reactions release energy. The basic reaction of the burning of C is the basis of our largest energy source -- fossil fuels of various types, including coal, natural gas, and oil. Recall the energy in these bonds came originally form the solar energy captured by plants and then "processed" for millions of year (transformed over millions of years) under the pressure in the Earth.
Burning of Coal
Coal is mainly carbon, water, some hydrogen, and oxygen. There are many different kinds of coal. In addition to H and O, coal also contains some small amounts of nitrogen, sulfur, and some other minerals.

Most of the carbon in coal is bound so that there is only one C-C bond for every C atom. Thus, for calculating the energy release of C + O2 CO2 in the case of coal, one assumes only the breaking of one C-C bond.
Following the previous example,
C (1 mole)
+
O2 (1 mole)
CO2 (1 mole)
C - C
+
O=O

O=C=O

Energy required to break bond:
83 kcal/mole+ 119 kcal/mole
=
202 kcal/mole
Energy Released:
2 x 177 kcal/mole = 354 kcal/mole
net release = 152 kcal/mole of carbon
Thus 12 g of carbon yields 152 kcal of energy provided sufficient oxygen is available for complete combustion.
1 kg of carbon therefore gives approximately 11,000 kcal
152 kcal
12g
x
1000 g
=
12666 kcal
As coal contains other ingredients , it works out that the actual yield of 1 kg of coal is about 700 kcal.
Byproducts from Coal Combustion
As seen in the equation, CO2 is the main byproduct of coal combustion -- 44g of CO2 is produced for every 23g of C burnt. The contribution of CO2 to global climate change is one of the fundamental problems of our fossil fuel economy. Other products of coal burning originate from the sulfur and nitrogen present in coal. The nitrogen is usually released as N2 or NO2 gas. The sulfur forms SO2, which is one of the gases that causes acid rain (discussed in detail in the Atmospheric System).

Insufficient oxygen supply during combustion -- as for example, burning coal (or wood) in a closed environment such as a room without adequate ventilation or a fireplace without a proper chimney -- produces carbon monoxide. As the oxygen is depleted, the reaction C + CO2 2CO becomes possible. Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless, and very poisonous gas. When breathing in CO, the CO takes the place of O2 in the hemoglobin molecules in the blood supply in the lungs, causing asphyxiation.

Energy Use, Efficiency, and the Future
Garrett Hardin who originated the idea of the Tragedy of the Commons, summarizes the two laws of Thermodynamics in terms of human significance as:
"You can't win, you are sure to lose;
and - you can't get out of the game."7
Whether we can get more "out of the game" is the central question of energy production. The examples above show what a small fraction of the input potential energy is actually used as output work. Designing for energy efficiency means in order to get a higher ratio of output, the input needs to become a central concern of intelligence design and practice.
Most of the energy planning is done by looking at the supply side. We examine how we can increase the supply of the resource in question, rather than by asking how the demand side (all our uses of energy) can be managed. Energy availability and use are good indicators of the standard of living in our technological world. In the U.S. the "average consumption per capita" is 55 barrels of oil. In the poorer countries, the consumption is 6 barrels per year.
 
 
Demand-side management instead of or in addition to supply side management would mean a focus on increasing efficiency of use and considerations of how to reduce the demand. The CAFE (Corporate Average Fuel Economy) standards legislated in the U.S. in 1980's required a certain level of fuel efficiency of U.S. automobiles. By demanding that the corporations figure out an overall fuel rating for all their fleets, the decisions on design and distribution of big and small cars in the total fleet were left to the industry, as long as the total corporate fuel economy goals were met.



                                                  Hybrid car features

________________________________________________________________________________
The addition of a battery-powered electric motor increases the fuel efficiency of hybrids in a number of ways.
Like the switch that turns off your refrigerator's light bulb when the door is closed, "idle-off" is a feature that turns off your car's conventional engine when the vehicle is stopped, saving fuel. The battery provides energy for the air conditioner and accessories while the vehicle idles at stoplights or in traffic, and the electric motor can start the vehicle moving again. If needed, the conventional engine will reengage to provide more power for acceleration.
"Regenerative braking" is another fuel-saving feature. Conventional cars rely entirely on friction brakes to slow down, dissipating the vehicle's kinetic energy as heat. Regenerative braking allows some of that energy to be captured, turned into electricity, and stored in the batteries. This stored electricity can later be used to run the motor and accelerate the vehicle.
How plug-in hybrid cars work



Plug-in hybrid vehicles combine a gas engine with an electric motor and battery.
Having an electric motor also allows for more efficient engine design. This "power assist" feature helps reduce demands on a hybrid’s gasoline engine, which in turn can be downsized and more efficiently operated. The gasoline engine produces less power, but when combined with electric motors, the system’s total power can equal or exceed that of a conventional vehicle.
The most efficient hybrids utilize "electric-only drive," allowing the vehicle to drive entirely on electricity and use less fuel. In hybrids that can't be plugged-in, electric-only drive is typically only utilized at low speeds and startup, enabling the gas or diesel-powered engine to operate at higher speeds, where it’s most efficient.. Most plug-in hybrids—which tend to have larger batteries and motors—can drive entirely on electricity at relatively high speeds for extended distances (typically 10 to 30 miles).
Different hybrids also use different types of "drivetrains," the mechanical components that deliver power to the driving wheels.

Differences between hybrids and other EVs

Hybrids that can't be recharged from an outlet aren't generally considered to be electric vehicles, as they rely exclusively on gasoline or diesel for energy. Plug-in hybrids, described above, are considered electric vehicles, along with battery electric and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.

Battery electric vehicles only use an electric motor and battery, eschewing conventional engines altogether. Because they don't use gas or diesel, battery electrics are often cleaner and cheaper to fuel than hybrids and conventional vehicles.

Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles power an electric motor and battery by converting stored hydrogen gas to electricity using a fuel cell. These vehicles are only beginning to come to market, but offer great potential as a low-carbon alternative to conventional cars and trucks as they have no tailpipe emissions, reduced global warming emissions, and can be refueled at a filling station similar to a gasoline vehicle.


                                                              Power unit and ERS
__________________________________________________________________________________

The internal combustion engine has always been the beating heart of a Formula 1 car, though today it represents just one element of an enormously sophisticated power unit.
Just as crucial to propulsion, and fully integrated with the turbocharged 1.6-litre V6, is an Energy Recovery System (ERS) that dramatically increases the unit’s overall efficiency by harvesting (and redeploying) heat energy from the exhaust and brakes that would usually go to waste.
The internal combustion engine itself is a stressed component within the car which is bolted to the carbon fibre 'tub'. Despite its relatively diminutive size and 15,000rpm rev limit, direct fuel injection, a single turbocharger and some remarkable engineering make it capable of producing around 700bhp.
ERS accounts for an additional 160bhp and helps ensure that the new units are not only just as powerful as the 2.4-litre V8s they succeeded, but considerably more efficient, using approximately 35 percent less fuel.
The new power units are a far cry from Formula 1 engines in the early 1950s which produced power outputs of around 100 bhp / litre (similar to what a modern 'performance' road car can manage now). That figure rose steadily until the arrival of F1 racing’s first 'turbo age' of 1.5 litre turbo engines in the 1970s when anything up to 750 bhp / litre was being pumped out. Then, once the sport returned to normal aspiration in 1989 that figure fell back, before steadily rising again. It wasn’t long before outputs crept back towards the 1000 bhp barrier, with some teams producing more than 300 bhp / litre in 2005, the final year of 3 litre V10 engines.
From 2006 to 2013, the regulations required the use of 2.4 litre V8 engines limited to 18,000rpm, with power outputs falling around 20 percent. However, the introduction of a Kinetic Energy Recovery System (KERS) in 2009, which captured waste energy created under braking and transformed it into electrical energy, ensured the teams had an extra 80bhp or so to play with for just over six seconds a lap.
Today’s ERS take the concept of KERS to another level, combining twice the power with a performance effect around ten times greater. ERS comprises two motor generator units (MGU-K and MGU-H), plus an Energy Store (ES) and control electronics. The motor generator units convert mechanical and heat energy to electrical energy and vice versa.
MGU-K (where the ‘K’ stands for kinetic) works like an uprated version of the previous KERS, converting kinetic energy generated under braking into electricity (rather than it escaping as heat). It also acts as a motor under acceleration, returning up to 120kW (approximately 160bhp) power to the drivetrain from the Energy Store.
MGU-H (where the ‘h’ stands for heat) is an energy recovery system connected to the turbocharger of the engine and converts heat energy from exhaust gases into electrical energy. The energy can then be used to power the MGU-K (and thus returned to the drivetrain) or be retained in the ES for subsequent use. Unlike the MGU-K which is limited to recovering 2MJ of energy per lap, the MGU-H is unlimited. The MGU-H also controls the speed of the turbo, speeding it up (to prevent turbo lag) or slowing it down in place of a more traditional wastegate.
A maximum of 4MJ per lap can be returned to the MGU-K and from there to the drivetrain - that’s ten times more than was possible with KERS, the ‘bolt-on’ recovery system ERS replaced in 2014. That means drivers have access to an additional 160bhp or so for approximately 33 seconds per lap.
For regulatory reasons the power unit is deemed to consist of six separate elements. These are the four ERS components, plus the internal combustion engine and the turbocharger. Should a driver use more than their permitted allocation of any one component he faces a grid penalty ranging from 10 to five places.
During a race drivers may use steering wheel controls to switch to different power unit settings, or to change the rate of ERS energy harvest. Such changes are controlled and regulated by the standard electrical control unit (ECU), mandatory on all F1 cars. But for all the things the driver can change from the cockpit, one thing he can’t do is start his own car. Unlike road cars, Formula One cars do not have their own onboard starting systems so separate starting devices have to be used to start engines in the pits and on the grid.
For safety, each car is fitted with ERS status lights which warn marshals and mechanics of the car’s electrical safety status when it is stopped or in the pits. If the car is safe, the lights - which are situated on the roll hoop and the rear tail lamp - will glow green; if not, they glow red. The lights must remain on for 15 minutes after the power unit has been switched off.



                                                                 ALTERNATOR
_________________________________________________________________________________

The alternator in your car is a kind of mini electrical generator, which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy through a process known as alternating current. Without an alternator, the engine in your car would have no spark, your headlights no light, and your heater no way to keep you comfortable in the winter. The process sounds complicated, but the way an alternator works is really pretty simple.

 

Battery vs. Alternator


Although many people assume that a car's battery powers all those things, the truth is that the battery only does one thing other than keeping the electronics on when the engine is off: It starts the engine. And only for a limited time. Once the engine fires, the alternator takes over and provides the juice.


Automobile engines run on air, fuel, and spark. While the battery supplies the electricity needed for that initial spark, it only has enough power to get the car a few miles down the road, and that's where the alternator comes in—it continually charges the car battery while the car is in motion while also simultaneously operating all the electronic components of the vehicle. This means that while the voltage of most car batteries is 12 volts, an alternator will typically output anywhere between 13 and a half and 15 volts of electricity.



How Alternators Work to Make Electricity


The alternator is comprised of a voltage regulator and three main components: The stator, rotor, and diode. When the battery initially powers the car, the alternator belt, or V-belt, spins the pulley on the alternator, causing the rotor inside the alternator to spin very quickly. This rotor, which is basically a magnet or group of magnets, is situated inside a nest of copper wires, which are called the stator.


The process whereby electricity is generated by spinning magnets at incredibly fast speeds along a set of copper wires is called electromagnetism. The electricity harnessed this way is conducted through the copper wires to a diode, which changes the electricity from AC to DC, the current that the car battery uses.


The next step happens within the voltage regulator—a built-in component on modern alternators—which is basically a gatekeeper that will shut off the flow of power to the battery if the voltage goes above a certain level, usually 14 and a half volts, which keeps the battery from getting overcharged and burning out. As the car battery is drained, current is allowed to flow back into it from the alternator, and the cycle goes on and on.


Signs of a Bad Alternator


When a car alternator is going bad, drivers will notice a reduced capacity for electrical use, often resulting in things like dim headlights. But these clues won't last long, because a partially charged battery usually has enough power to operate things like headlights and power windows, but will fail the next time you try to start the vehicle.


There is also usually a dash board light, also known as the battery light because it's often shaped like a little battery, that will alert drivers to an alternator that is not providing enough charge to keep the system up.

Engine Compartment









                                               Operational Information
            The Computer Controlled Electronic Engine

_________________________________________________________________________________

It is not generally known that the first airless injection system (i.e. not to use compressed air to atomise the fuel) was a common rail system. The invention of this system is often mistakenly credited to Doxford, but it was invented and patented by Vickers of Barrow in Furness.
 
In this early common rail system the engine driven fuel pumps pressurised a fuel rail to about 400 bar from which pipes led to the fuel valves operated by cams and rocking levers. Independently driven pumps were provided to prime the system for starting.
Later systems used hydraulically operated injectors, the delivery of fuel being controlled by a cam operated valve. Fuel quantity was controlled by an eccentric on the cam follower.
 
With the integration of industrial electronics into marine engineering systems coupled with the giant strides made in the development of computer technology, it has now become possible to re-introduce the fuel injection common rail along with other fuel injection systems, using this modern technology to time the injection of fuel without mechanical aids.
 
In addition to this, it has become possible to dispense with the timed camshaft altogether by using similar systems to control operation of valves and the air start system.
 
The two major manufacturers of two stroke crosshead engines have both introduced a camshaft-less engine. Sulzer call theirs the RT Flex engine, and MAN B&W call theirs the ME intelligent engine. Both engines use electrical and engine driven axial piston pumps to pressurise servo oil rails to 200 bar which are then used for fuel injection and exhaust valve operation. In addition MAN B&W use the servo oil to drive the cylinder lubricator units (Alpha system)
 
Although they both work without a camshaft and use computers to control, fuel injection, exhaust valve operation and air starting, the method of fuel injection is different.
 
 
Sulzer use a pressurised fuel rail using a set of jerk type pumps driven by a three lobe cam geared to the crankshaft. The pumps are variable delivery, based on the ZA40 fuel pump, controlled by an electrically driven fuel pump shaft linked to the engine computer.
 
The engine computer system known as the Wartsila Engine Control System (WECS)controls the delivery from the common rail to the individual cylinders via the volumetric injection control system which uses finely filtered engine LO pressurised by electric pumps to 200 bar.
 
When the Rail Valves are energized for injection by the Valve Driver Module, oil from the Control Rail opens the Injection Control Valves. The fuel injectors are pressurized and fuel oil pressure behind the Fuel Quantity Piston maintains this pressure at the injectors. As the Piston moves to the left a feedback signal is sent to the Cylinder Control Module.
 
At low engine load the control system cuts out one of the three injection valves per cylinder.
 
At very low load two of the three injection valves are cut out. This is used to avoid visible smoke emission and to reduce fuel consumption. It is possible to reduce engine load to 10% with engine revolutions as low as 7RPM.
 
 
 
Unlike the Sulzer RT Flex engine the MAN B&W ME engine does not operate the fuel injection on a common rail system.
 
Instead a solenoid operated proportioning valve (the FIVA valve - Fuel Injection Valve Activation) allows the pressurised servo oil under a hydraulic piston. This then moves the fuel pump piston upwards, raising the fuel pressure and opening the injection valves.
 
A nitrogen filled accumulator maintains the hydraulic servo oil pressure during the operation of the pump.
 
 
 
To be able to time the fuel injection the Control Systems must know the crank angle of the individual units. To do this two crank angle sensors are fitted at the free end of the engine. These sensors are accurate to 0.1°. Cylinder pressures and powers are continually monitored by using strain gauges built into the cylinder head, and the computer automatically compensates for twist in the crankshaft when relating crankshaft position to cylinder pressure. the systems give complete flexibility over start and end of injection and take into account fuel quality, dead time (the time between injection start command being given and actual injection), and Variable Injection Timing (VIT).
 
The exhaust valve actuator replaces the cam operated exhaust valve hydraulic pump on both make of camshaftless engines. Both working on a similar principle, servo oil at 200 bar is used to operate a piston which operates the exhaust valve "hydraulic push rod" The oil for operating the "hydraulic push rod" comes from the main engine LO supply via a non return valve.
 
 
 
The air start system is similar to that on a  conventional engine except there is no need for a mechanically driven distributor to open the air start valves at the correct time.
 
Instead of a camshaft driven, reversing air start distributor, each air start valve is opened at the correct time by the engine computers sending a signal to a solenoid controlled nc (normally closed) valve.
 
The timing of the air start valves will vary depending on the number of cylinders, but they will be open for a long enough period to allow overlap, so that a valve opens before the previous valve closes, allowing starting from any position of rest. The nominal opening can be considered as 0° (ie TDC) and closing at 110° ATDC.
 
The computer knows when to send the signal because it is receiving information as to the crankshaft position from the angle encoders which measure crankshaft position and RPM.
 
When the engine has reached firing speed the computers shut off the air and introduce the fuel.


                                         Are Engine Stop-Start (ESS) Systems Reliable?

___________________________________________________________________________________


                                     

Start. Drive. Stop. Start. Drive. Stop. It’s a relatively subtle thing that you’ll likely get used to, as the vehicle turns itself off in situations where it’d otherwise be idling. Release the brakes, and the engine is back up and running in less time than it takes to move your foot back onto the throttle pedal.
This saves fuel, and saving fuel is good

 Regular reader emails indicate that a portion of the car-buying public is apprehensive about buying a vehicle with a starter that may turn the engine on and off dozens of times on a single drive. Some even report that they’ve avoided buying a vehicle with ESS to avoid future issues. Others say they deactivate the ESS system via a switch on the dashboard on every drive, to avoid wearing out the starter.
It’s born partly of a logic embodied in a favourite phrase of my father, who likes to keep things simple: “That sounds like more stuff to break.” Though he uses a different word than “stuff”.
New technology always has its skeptics, and back in the day, people probably had similar concerns about fuel injection, automatic transmissions, and power windows.
“A remote control to unlock your doors?! Imagine the repair bill when that breaks!”
Below, we’ve compiled input from some experts in the industry – including a manufacturer of ESS system components, an automaker who uses a lot of them, and some notes from our network of service technicians.


                                      THE COMPONENT MANUFACTURE

 
“The ESS starter is developed for many more starting cycles (than a conventional one), since multiple warm starts are expected during each drive. The starter is optimized to start the vehicle from a warm start, and not the typical cranking cold start.”
In a cranking cold start, the engine is cold and stiff and the vehicle’s starter has to work harder, uses more power, and is under more strain. Restarting an engine that’s already warm (which is the case every time an ESS starter restarts an engine) draws less power and involves less strain.
Many ESS systems are calibrated to only begin their stop–start duties once the engine has reached operating temperature, ensuring all components within are well lubricated, and that the engine oil is at its optimal viscosity.
Think of it like jogging: a cranking cold start is like hopping out of bed in the morning and immediately running at breakneck speed, which is hard on all involved components. Conversely, a warm start, which is the key purpose of an ESS starter, is like going for a jog after a good breakfast and some warm-ups and stretches.

 

Though an ESS starter starts and stops an engine very frequently, the vast majority of those starts are easy ones that occur once the engine is warmed up and limber.
Like it or not, this technology is here now, and will be expanding.The notes that while many ESS systems today are running on 12-volt architecture, 48-volt systems are coming, with added benefits.
“The (upcoming) 48V starter can support various additional features, like boosting, recuperation, sailing, coasting, creeping, etc.” These additional functions all expand the operational range in which the vehicle’s engine can be switched off, saving more fuel and further reducing emissions.

“The ESS is built for lifetime use according to highest automotive standards and should have no disadvantages to the ordinary starter . “Beside the initial investment, there should be no higher cost over the lifetime.”
Continental puts their ESS starters through various durability tests, which include working the component to a high temperature before plunging it into ice water, as well as continual running of the starter at higher-than-spec speeds and currents. The ESS starters are also subjected to long-duration salt-spray tests, to assess their resistance to environmental factors.

The ESM for stop–start is more powerful than standard starters, and so components such as the pinion engagement, gears, solenoid, commutator, and motor brushes are designed to manage this increased power.”
Other modifications may include an electric auxiliary transmission pump to maintain the transmission in gear while the engine is auto-stopped, and an auxiliary water pump used to manage the system’s increased heat.





                                          Hasil gambar untuk electronic circuit start stop engine
                       
Stop Start Wiring Diagram



                                       Application - HEV Start/Stop System
Start-stop technology shuts down a car’s engine when it’s not needed, for instance, when it would otherwise idle, and starts the engine again when the driver accelerates. This simple fuel-saving solution has been available for years, and is a low cost efficiency improvement. The start/stop feature alone is enough to classify a vehicle as a “micro hybrid,” and can save 5 – 10% in fuel costs.



This design is for reference only. The design, as well as the products suggested, has not been tested for compatibility or interoperability.




Protecting in-car electronics
Start-stop technology imposes several electronic design challenges because the main battery can fall as low as 6 V during engine cranking. This can disrupt the operation of in-car electronics such as the radio, climate control, GPS and interior or exterior lights. All these systems need a stable supply, or board-net voltage, of nominally 13 V to operate correctly. Hence the vehicle needs an additional subsystem, containing a power switch and associated control circuitry, both to disconnect the battery when the engine cranks and to let an auxiliary battery or dc/dc converter power the loads temporarily.

When the vehicle operates normally, the power switch in the subsystem must supply all the car’s electrical loads. At the same time, low conduction losses are imperative because the switch is on except when cranking.
IR’s 24-V AUIRF1324S-7L or 40-V AUIRF3004-7L MOSFETs are solid-state switches qualified for automotive applications. They combine a continuous drain current of 240 A (package limited) with low on-state resistance of 1.0 or 1.25 mΩ respectively to handle the maximum load current imposed by the vehicle while also minimizing system energy losses. Designers can connect several devices in parallel to further reduce on-state resistance. The MOSFETs can be controlled using a smart driver IC such as the AUIR3240S, which is designed explicitly for automotive applications.
Because the battery must remain connected when the car is parked, the combination of power switches and controller must have a low quiescent current to minimise drain on the battery. A quiescent current of around 50 µA is considered acceptable.
When the vehicle auto-start function activates engine cranking, the main battery voltage begins to fall. The power switch must turn off quickly to let the auxiliary supply maintain the board-net voltage at 13 V. This is important, because the low ohmic resistance of the power switch can let a high current flow to the main battery side with a voltage drop of only a few millivolts. The turn-on time is less critical because the current will flow in the body diode of the power switch.
It is challenging to design a driver having low quiescent current and that meets all these requirements, using discrete components. The IR AUIR3240S manages the turn-on and turn-off of the power switch. It contains a boost converter capable of operating from an input voltage in the range of 4 to 36 V, allowing continuous operation as the battery voltage falls during cranking. It also provides a MOSFET gate drive voltage of 12.5 V. The device integrates circuitry to monitor voltage and current, control on/off-time, diagnose faults and protect against thermal overload.
The IC architecture is optimized for intermittent operation, which effectively reduces current consumption to less than 50 µA. Only a few external passive components complete the design: an inductor and a capacitor for the boost converter and resistors for the diagnostic and measurement circuitry.
The internal block diagram of the controller IC includes the main dc/dc switch, K1, and freewheeling diode, D. Two comparators control the turn-on and turn-off of K1. One comparator monitors the gate voltage compared to Vcc to turn on K1. The other monitors the voltage across the shunt resistor connected to the Rs pin, which controls the turn off. The AUIR3240S can keep the MOSFET turned on while drawing very low current.
To meet automotive-industry requirements for safety-relevant systems, the AUIR3240S provides two diagnostic mechanisms to watch for excessive output current and system temperature. The IC supports thermal monitoring by providing circuitry enabling connection of an NTC device close to the MOSFET die.
Car users, pundits and legislators agree that electric cars will eventually be the norm. In the immediate future, however, start-stop technology can help reduce fuel consumption and CO2 emissions at a relatively low cost. They entail only a few modifications to the powertrain, implementing improvements in batteries, starter/alternators and electronic components, and many of these are already well developed.
All in all, rugged, reliable solid-state power switches and innovative control ICs help stop-start technology let new cars meet tightening environmental performance demands while allowing the continued use of familiar, reliable, economical and easy to use internal combustion engines.


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                                        How Electronic Components Work

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                                              how-electronic-components-work-header-image.jpg 


Electronic gadgets have become an integral part of our lives. They have made our lives more comfortable and convenient. From aviation to medical and healthcare industries, electronic gadgets have a wide range of applications in the modern world. In fact, the electronics revolution and the computer revolution go hand in hand.
Most gadgets have tiny electronic circuits that can control machines and process information. Simply put, electronic circuits are the lifelines of various electrical appliances. This guide explains in detail about common electronic components used in electronic circuits and how they work.

the function & significance of the component electronic compare to automotive component :
  1. Capacitor in automotive ; we call condenser
  2. Resistor  in automotive ; we call Load as like lamp , switch .
  3. Diode  In automotive ; we call rectifier it was in dynamo starter
  4. Transistor In automotive ; we call regulator and amplification signal
  5. Inductor In automotive ; We call Coil
  6. Relay In automotive ; We call platinum and spark plugs
  7. Quartz Crystal In automotive ; We call alternator
 

The Elements of an Electronic Circuit

The complexity and the number of components in an electronic circuit may change depending on its application. However, the simplest circuit consists of three elements, including a conducting path, a voltage source, and a load.

Element 1: Conducting Path

The electric current flows through the conducting path. Though copper wires are used in simple circuits, they are rapidly being replaced by conductive traces. Conductive traces are nothing but copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. They are often used in small and complex circuits such as Printed Circuit Boards (PCB).

Element 2: Voltage Source

The primary function of a circuit is to allow electric current to pass through it safely. So, the first key element is the voltage source. It is a two-terminal device such as a battery, generators or power systems that provide a potential difference (voltage) between two points in the circuit so that current can flow through it.

Element 3: Load

A load is an element in the circuit that consumes power to perform a particular function. A light bulb is the simplest load. Complex circuits, however, have different loads such as resistors, capacitors, transistors, and transistors.

Electronic Circuit Facts

Fact 1: Open Circuit

As mentioned before, a circuit must always form a loop to allow the current to flow through it. However, when it comes to an open circuit, the current can’t flow as one or more components are disconnected either intentionally (by using a switch) or accidentally (broken parts). In other words, any circuit that does not form a loop is an open circuit.

Fact 2: Closed Circuit

A closed circuit is one that forms a loop without any interruptions. Thus, it is the exact opposite of an open circuit. However, a complete circuit that doesn’t perform any function is still a closed circuit. For example, a circuit connected to a dead battery may not perform any work, but it is still a closed circuit.

Fact 3: Short Circuit

In the case of short-circuit, a low-resistance connection forms between two points in an electric circuit. As a result, the current tends to flow through this newly formed connection rather than along the intended path. For example, if there is a direct connection between the battery’s negative and positive terminal, the current will flow through it rather than passing through the circuit.
However, short circuits usually lead to serious accidents as the current can flow at dangerously high levels. Hence, a short circuit can damage electronic equipment, cause batteries to explode, and even start a fire in commercial and residential buildings.

Fact 4: Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs)

Most electronic appliances require complex electronic circuits. That’s why designers have to arrange tiny electronic components on a circuit board. It comprises a plastic board with connecting copper tracks on one side and lots of holes to affix the components. When the layout of a circuit board is printed chemically onto a plastic board, it is called a printed circuit board or PCB

Fact 5: Integrated Circuits (ICs)

Though PCBs can offer a lot of advantages, most modern instruments such as computers and mobiles require complex circuits, having thousands and even millions of components. That’s where integrated circuits come in. They are the tiny electronic circuits that can fit inside a small silicon chip. Jack Kilby invented the first integrated circuit in 1958 at Texas Instruments. The sole purpose of ICs is to increase the efficiency of the electronic devices, while reducing their size and manufacturing cost. Over the years, integrated circuits have become increasingly sophisticated as technology continues to evolve. That’s why personal computers, laptops, mobiles phones, and other consumer electronics are getting cheaper and better by the day.

modern technology, electronic circuit building process has been completely automated, especially for building ICs and PCBs. The number and arrangement of components in a circuit may vary depending on its complexity. However, it is built using a small number of standard components.


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                                           Future Automotive Electronic Systems
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The future of the automotive electronic systems. Future applications of telematics are described. One of the interesting potential future developments in the application of electronics to automobiles is navigation. The fundamental control strategy for fuel metering has not changed, although the technological changes have improved the performance and reliability of the electronically controlled engine. Some of the technical improvements described in the chapter include knock control, linear solenoid idle speed control, sequential fuel injection, distributorless ignition, self-diagnosis for fail-safe operation, back-up microprocessor (MPU), and hybrid vehicles. New mechanisms and electromechanical actuators have been developed to improve volumetric efficiency via induction systems, variable valve timing, variable nozzle turbochargers, and throttle actuators.

                                                       Automotive electronics
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Automotive electronics are electronic systems used in vehicles, including engine management, ignition, radio, carputers, telematics, in-car entertainment systems and others. Ignition, engine, and transmission electronics are also found in trucks, motorcycles, off-road vehicles, and other internal combustion-powered machinery such as forklifts, tractors, and excavators. Related elements for control of relevant electrical systems are found on hybrid vehicles and electric cars as well. 
The development of semiconductors after WWII greatly expanded the use of electronics in automobiles, with solid-state diodes making the automotive alternator the standard after about 1960, and the first transistorized ignition systems appearing about 1955.
The availability of microprocessors after about 1974 made another range of automotive applications economically feasible. In 1978 the Cadillac Seville introduced a "trip computer" based on a 6802 microprocessor. Electronically-controlled ignition and fuel injection systems allowed automotive designers to achieve vehicles meeting requirements for fuel economy and lower emissions, while still maintaining high levels of performance and convenience for drivers. Today's automobiles contain a dozen or more processors, in functions such as engine management, transmission control, climate control,antilock braking, passive safety systems, navigation, and other functions.
Modern electric cars rely on power electronics for the main propulsion motor control, as well as managing the battery system. Future autonomous cars will rely on powerful computer systems, an array of sensors, networking, and satellite navigation, all of which will require electronics.

Automotive electronics or automotive embedded systems are distributed systems, and according to different domains in the automotive field, they can be classified into:
  1. Engine electronics
  2. Transmission electronics
  3. Chassis electronics
  4. Passive safety
  5. Driver assistance
  6. Passenger comfort
  7. Entertainment systems
  8. Electronic Integrated Cockpit systems

Engine electronics

One of the most demanding electronic parts of an automobile is the engine control unit (ECU). Engine controls demand one of the highest real time deadlines, as the engine itself is a very fast and complex part of the automobile. Of all the electronics in any car the computing power of the engine control unit is the highest, typically a 32-bit processor.
A modern car may have up to 100 ECU's and a commercial vehicle up to 40.
An engine ECU controls such functions as:
In a diesel engine:
In a gasoline engine:
  • Lambda control
  • OBD (On-Board Diagnostics)
  • Cooling system control
  • Ignition system control
  • Lubrication system control (only a few have electronic control)
  • Fuel injection rate control
  • Throttle control
Many more engine parameters are actively monitored and controlled in real-time. There are about 20 to 50 that measure pressure, temperature, flow, engine speed, oxygen level and NOx level plus other parameters at different points within the engine. All these sensor signals are sent to the ECU, which has the logic circuits to do the actual controlling. The ECU output is connected to different actuators for the throttle valve, EGR valve, rack (in VGTs), fuel injector (using a pulse-width modulated signal), dosing injector and more. There are about 20 to 30 actuators in all.

Transmission electronics

These control the transmission system, mainly the shifting of the gears for better shift comfort and to lower torque interrupt while shifting. Automatic transmissions use controls for their operation, and also many semi-automatic transmissions having a fully automatic clutch or a semi-auto clutch (declutching only). The engine control unit and the transmission control exchange messages, sensor signals and control signals for their operation.

Chassis electronics

The chassis system has a lot of sub-systems which monitor various parameters and are actively controlled:

Passive safety

These systems are always ready to act when there is a collision in progress or to prevent it when it senses a dangerous situation:

Driver assistance

Passenger comfort

  • Automatic climate control
  • Electronic seat adjustment with memory
  • Automatic wipers
  • Automatic headlamps - adjusts beam automatically
  • Automatic cooling - temperature adjustment

Entertainment systems

All of the above systems forms an infotainment system. Developmental methods for these systems vary according to each manufacturer. Different tools are used for both hardware and software development.

Electronic Integrated Cockpit systems

These are new generation hybrid ECUs that combine the functionalities of multiple ECUs of Infotainment Head Unit, Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS), Instrument Cluster, Rear Camera/Parking Assist, Surround View Systems etc. This saves on cost of electronics as well as mechanical/physical parts like interconnects across ECUs etc. There is also a more centralized control so data can be seamlessly exchanged between the systems.
There are of course challenges too. Given the complexity of this hybrid system, a lot more rigor is needed to validate the system for robustness, safety and security. For example, if the infotainment system's application which could be running an open source Android OS is breached, there could be possibility of hackers to take control of the car remotely and potentially misuse it for anti social activities. Typically so, usage of a hardware+software enabled hypervisors are used to virtualize and create separate trust and safety zones that are immune to each other's failures or breaches. Lot of work is happening in this area and potentially will have such systems soon if not already.

Functional safety requirements

In order to minimize the risk of dangerous failures, safety related electronic systems have to be developed following the applicable product liability requirements. Disregard for, or inadequate application of these standards can lead to not only personal injuries, but also severe legal and economic consequences such as product cancellations or recalls.
The IEC 61508 standard, generally applicable to electrical/electronic/programmable safety-related products, is only partially adequate for automotive-development requirements. Consequently, for the automotive industry, this standard is replaced by the existing ISO 26262, currently released as a Final Draft International Standard (FDIS). ISO/DIS 26262 describes the entire product life-cycle of safety related electrical/electronic systems for road vehicles. It has been published as an international standard in its final version in November 2011. The implementation of this new standard will result in modifications and various innovations in the automobile electronics development process, as it covers the complete product life-cycle from the concept phase until its decommissioning.

e- Key Pass

As more functions of the automobile are connected to short- or long-range networks, cyber security of systems against unauthorized modification is required. With critical systems such as engine controls, transmission, air bags, and braking connected to internal diagnostic networks, remote access could result in a malicious intruder altering the function of systems or disabling them, possibly causing injuries or fatalities. Every new interface presents a new "attack surface". The same facility that allows the owner to unlock and start a car from a smart phone app also presents risks due to remote access. Auto manufacturers may protect the memory of various control microprocessors both to secure them from unauthorized changes and also to ensure only manufacturer-authorized facilities can diagnose or repair the vehicle. Systems such as keyless entry rely on cryptographic techniques to ensure "replay" or "man-in-the-middle attacks" attacks cannot record sequences to allow later break-in to the automobile.


                                                 Control electronics engineering
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We must and have to develop high-level control and low-level driver software that is fully integrated into the vehicle - including hybrid technologies.

prototyping electronic control unit (ECU) based on AUTOSAR that enables fast and efficient development of control systems from initial concept to production.

Capabilities


  • Engine, transmission and hybrid and electric vehicle control
  • Battery management systems
  • Vehicle systems including: safety sensors and actuators, instrument packs, telematics, infotainment, body and chassis controllers, lighting, convertible roof systems etc
  • Electrical integration of control units into vehicle systems
  • Safety-critical software and electronic systems development to ISO 26262 and other standards
  • Electronic hardware design capability for prototype and production electronic solutions
  • Specification management
  • Electronic and mechanical design
  • Control software, autocoding processes
  • EMC with in-house test capability
  • Design validation
  • Test systems


Hybrid & electronic

E-machine design covers all motor types and drive types including Surface Permanent Magnet (SPM), Induction Machine (IM), Interior Permanent Magnet (IPM) and Switched Reluctance (SR) machines. The Prototype designs are bespoke to the application needs and may include features such as:
  • A wide speed range constant power capability
  • Very high-torque at low speed from standstill for rapid engine starting
  • High-efficiency output in primary operating region
  • Efficiency for 10~100% speed, >20% rated torque: =>90%

        Automotive electronics: What are they, and how do they differ from “normal” electronics?
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Automotive electronics are specially-designed electronics intended for use in automobiles. Automotive electronics can be subjected to, and are therefore rated at, more extreme temperature ranges than commercial (i.e. normal) electronics.
Most electrical devices are manufactured in several temperature grades with each manufacturer defining its own temperature ratings. Therefore, designers and engineers must pay close attention to the actual specifications on product datasheets. The list below is an example of temperature ratings/grades. Note that the automotive grade is second only to the military grade (in terms of extreme temperature ratings):
• Commercial: 0°C to 85°C
• Industrial: -40°C to 100°C
• Automotive: -40°C to 125°C
• Military: -55°C to 125°C
Now how about to : why not just use the military grade in all applications? And there’s one simple answer: cost. We can be assured that as the temperature rating of device increases, so does its cost — sometimes significantly.
However, aside from a special temperature rating, devices that carry the term “automotive electronics” are those devices that have either been designed for or have been adapted for use in automobile applications. Categories of this include carputers, telematics, and infotainment systems.
A carputer (a combination of the words car and computer) is really nothing more than a customized PC designed to operate in a car with one or more of the following added features:
• Compact size
• Low-power requirement
• Customized components
• Video-capable (DVD)
• Music-capable (MP3)
• Bluetooth-capable
• USB-capable
• WiFi-capable
• GPS navigation
The first use of a computer in a car was for engine control. It was called the ECU computer, or the Engine Control Unit. The year was 1968 when the first ECU appeared in a Volkswagen to perform one specific function: EFI (electronic fuel injection). See Figure 1 below.

                                         

                                 Fig. 1: Volkswagen first to use a computer in a car


Telematics (a combination of the words telecommunications and informatics) is, in a broad sense, any integrated use of telecommunications utilizing information and communication technologies—it is the technology of sending, receiving, and storing information relating to cars via telecommunication devices. The following list includes examples of communications that either use or otherwise take advantage of telematics:
• Vehicle/trailer tracking
• Wireless vehicle safety communications
• Emergency warning system for vehicles
• Intelligent vehicle technologies
• Car-sharing technologies
• Satellite navigation
• Road safety
Infotainment (a combination of the words information and entertainment) systems—also referred to as in-car entertainment (ICE) and in-vehicle infotainment (IVI)—is a collection of hardware and software in automobiles that provides audio and video content in a combination of information and entertainment. It can be argued that infotainment systems was the catalyst for transforming an ordinary car into a smart car, that is, one that can provide excellent entertainment facilities (such as ear seat entertainment) as well as provide technologies capable of driver-assistance, including assisting a driver while parking a car, alerting the driver on a congested traffic route and suggest an alternative path, and providing internet connectivity inside a car.
“Infotainment is one of the key megatrends fueling the pervasiveness of microelectronics in cars.” It’s becoming clear that drivers want to be “connected” and easily access their personal content anywhere, anytime, and on all of their devices. And today’s automotive electronics provide the means for converting the car into yet another “connected device.” “A ‘connected’ car is also more comfortable, safer, and energy efficient, having early access to important information such as weather reports, traffic jams, or road accidents.”

                                              
                                  Fig. 3: Example of infotainment dashboard
Today’s cars can have over 50 computer systems dedicated for monitoring and/or controlling everything from ride handling, to on-board entertainment and communication systems (see Figure 4 below). Current automotive electronic semiconductor suppliers include Freescale/NXP, Renesas, Infineon, STMicroelectronics, Bosch, Texas Instruments (TI), ON Semiconductor, Toshiba, and Micron Technology .

Safety applications

Airbag System
  • Airbag systems are standard in most cars and are mandatory equipment in many countries.
  • Infineon’s products support scalability and flexibility for building systems from 4 to over 20 firing loops.

 
                                           Fig. 5: Airbag System. Image taken from Infineon’s

Automotive 24GHz Radar System
  • Short-range radar implementation.
  • 24GHz radar technology for driver-assist systems such as autonomous emergency braking and blind spot detection.
  
                                     Fig. 6: Radar System. Image taken from Infineon’s


Multi-Purpose Camera System
  • Highly integrated, compact, and efficient camera system.
  • Enables driver assistance functions including lane departure warning, forward collision warning, traffic sign recognition, and pedestrian recognition.

 
                                      Fig. 7: Camera System. Image taken from Infineon’s

Tire Pressure Monitoring System
  • Ensures correct tire pressure for car safety, handling, and comfortable driving.
  • Increases tire lifetime of up to 30%

                                                                    Fig. 8: Tire Pressure Monitoring System

            
Powertrain Applications

48V Micro-Hybrid
  • Start/Stop and High-Efficiency Generator
  • Engine brake emulation, car sailing/coasting, electrical car launch.

                                             Fig. 9: 48V Micro-Hybrid System.


Gasoline Direct Injection System
  • Conforms to the latest emission legislation at the highest possible fuel efficiency.
  • Provides enhanced measurement precision (ignition control, misfire detection)



                               Fig. 10 Gasoline Direct Injection System


Body Applications

LED Rear Light Module
  • Integrated LED control with diagnostic and dimming capability
  • Increases lifetime of LED and LED driver due to integrated protection.


                                                      Fig. 11: LED Rear Light Control.

Interior Light Control with Capacitive Touch Sensor
  • Replacing mechanical switches offers cost savings.
  • Robust and reliable touch sense control technology.


                 Fig. 12: Interior Light Control








































































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If you want to read and analyze energy formation and the concept of combustion that causes energy please read my other book summary, in mode: JESIISE LOVE ADAPTER (e- JESI ISE LOVE)























































Kamis, 28 Februari 2019

Past and present warehousing techniques using electronics and International Electronic Processing (INTERNET) AMNIMARJESLOW GOVERNMENT 913204710250017 XI XAM PIN PING HUNG CHOP 02096010014 LJBUSAF CELL __ PIT GOING ADAPT GOOD EFISIENSI WAREHOUSE With e- Distribusion __ Thankyume on Lord Jesus Blessing For Sky Bridge for Earth ___ Gen . Mac Tech Zone e- Bridge Warehouse




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In the era of the century before the century the warehousing was still from around the accumulation of food ingredients in barns of food such as grain barns - rice barns - barns and so on which aimed at storing food for certain seasons in human life in order to walk and all it still depends on natural processes and from the results of human activities which have not yet been categorized as business activities but are still in the form of activities to defend themselves, namely for the needs of community and royal life or for logistical needs of war between tribes and beliefs. but at this time, after or after the occurrence of additional functions than warehousing, namely for the purpose of storing goods produced as well as for national security of a country. the addition of additional functions from this warehousing in the 19th century and the 20th century became an essential limitation where humans have experienced life which has not been dependent on climate and environmental atmosphere but began by managing the environment so that the living system in a country and royal kingdom got something better of course we know the increasing number of people and the increasing number of countries on earth. and the trading process with more and more items is increasingly complex. whereas in the 21st to the 22nd century, commercial transaction processes have been influenced by electronic systems where transactions of many production items needed by many people are managed properly and efficiently and effectively so that quality and quantity can be increased, in the process of modernizing warehousing this warehouse in modern times should have been reduced because warehouses are a source of additional costs which are like costs that can indirectly increase the cost of goods sold where the price of manufactured goods will be more expensive and sources of bureaucratic and corruption costs if in countries with electronic technology which is not yet qualified due to transactions still from hand to hand and the recording is still manual and the process of receiving and sending goods manually. in this modern era the warehousing process has begun to be reduced by the on-line marketing which by this process the goods of production can be quickly sent and purchased as well as the process of financial transactions that are fast and appropriate in accordance with the price of the goods produced. so I explained briefly about warehousing --- now - and the future.




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                                            ( Gen. Mac Tech Zone e- Bridge Warehouse )
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                                              Original Circuit Board



Warehouse is a room that is usually used to store goods that are generally in large quantities and are generally owned by companies in the manufacturing field. The types of goods stored in warehouses are very diverse, but usually stored in there are raw materials or merchandise supplies. Do you know? This warehouse is actually part of logistics activities whose functions are not only limited to storage, but there are other important things

The importance of warehouses in business continuity cannot be underestimated. Although it does not have a building for its own warehouse, several companies are willing to rent a place to be used as a storage warehouse. The warehouse function in the company is as follows :


• Assembling


Warehouse does have a main function as a storage place, but some companies also use it as a place to assemble, namely to assemble products ordered by clients or consumers.

• Dispatching


Another function is as dispatching for storage and shipping. With this the production process of an item can be controlled and in accordance with the schedule set.

• Inbound & Outbound Consolidation


The company uses warehouses as well as inbound and outbound consolidation. Inbound consolidation is a process where goods are consolidated first in the storage space before entering the production process. Whereas outbound consolidation is placing goods produced and consolidated before they are later handed over to customers.

• Maintaining Record


The warehouse is used as a storage place that serves to carry out product maintenance. Especially if the merchandise owned by the company does need to be placed in a good room so that the quality of the goods is maintained.

• Packaging


Warehouses are also used for packing a product before being delivered to customers. In the warehouse also the order selection is carried out before proceeding to the next process. In this storage room sorting activities are also carried out and inspection of goods in containers until they are sent to customers.


Looking at the warehouse functions above, of course you understand why warehouse management is an important aspect of running a business. Warehouse is actually not a mere stock business, but also can spread to other management including financial management of a company. Good warehouse management can help reduce production costs indirectly. Also read the article following the importance of financial management to gain profit in business. When production costs can be reduced, the profit generated can also be increased.
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The following are some things that can be obtained by the company if the warehouse management is carried out properly:

• Reducing the risk of loss


With good warehouse management, you will also reduce the risk of future losses. The risk of loss in question is such as damage to merchandise that is stored too long to reduce logistics costs. Warehouses that are in place as transit, distribution and consolidation terminals can be utilized properly according to their functions if warehouse management is carried out properly.

• Able to Meet Faster Requests


With a good warehouse management system, the company can meet client demand faster. Sudden requests can also be fulfilled if the warehouse is properly managed. Shipping goods and checking or sorting goods can also be done faster if the company has good warehouse management.

• Can Present Stock Information in Real Time


Warehouse management also encourages the presentation of stock information in real time. You can find out the number of stocks, how many stocks have been damaged and how many units are still in process until the finished ones. You are able to calculate the cost in more detail and in accordance with the data in the field. This certainly makes it easier for you to compile and read related reports.

• Able to Determine Inventory and Re-Order More Precisely


Proper warehouse management can also help companies determine when to re-order inventory. The warehouse management system is able to estimate more precisely how much inventory is needed. That way the company will not experience shortages or excess stock in the future. In this way, not only inventory management is maintained, but the financial condition of the company is also saved because it is able to avoid excessive expenditure of funds to purchase inventory.

• As Material for Consideration in Taking Company Policy


Information related to warehouses is also needed to take policy in the company, especially in terms of production and logistics. Warehouse information is needed to determine the cost of goods sold which will be used to calculate the profit and loss obtained by the company. Warehouse data is also needed as a comparison with previous data in order to take the right company policy.

• Reducing fraud that might occur


Warehouse management is also needed to identify fraud and negligence that may occur in the company. Warehouse management can be used as a form of supervision, control and planning of existing inventory.


   
                               How to Build Correct Warehouse Management?
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Without disregarding financial management, this article is made so that companies are increasingly aware of the importance of managing warehouses properly. Good warehouse management does not only depend on the budgeting control over inventory but also maintenance of the inventory itself.

This means that how to store inventory is very important not only to regulate how much inventory needs to be bought or produced. The following are steps you can take to build a good and correct warehouse management below:

• Prepare Data on Items that Need to Be Stored


The first step you need to do to build the right warehouse management is to prepare in advance what supplies will be stored in the warehouse. By preparing inventory data as accurately as possible you can calculate how much building is needed for storage.

• Determine Warehouse Location


Next you need to determine the location of the building that will be used as a storage location. Warehouse locations should be easy to access and have a spacious parking area so that vehicles can get in and out easily. The location of the warehouse should be close to the office so that it is easy to do an audit by interested parties.

• Set Inventory Layout


It doesn't stop there, but it also requires setting up inventory layout to make it easier to calculate and search for items later on. Understand the character of the product so that the storage will also be more appropriate. Inventory products can be arranged based on the brand or type of product itself. Inventory categories and sizes also affect the product storage layout. Do not forget too, set the temperature of the warehouse so that it is not too moist or too dry which can have an impact on the condition of the inventory of goods stored.

• Create a Forecast for the Inventory Schedule


After the data collection and laying of the inventory have been sorted out, proceed by making inventory forecast in the required period and proceed with making inventory schedules. This inventory schedule will determine when you should make inventory purchases. The availability of inventory forecast information and inventory schedule will make it easier for you to calculate inventory budgeting for a certain period.

• Use Inventory Software


Management of goods cannot be considered trivial. Especially in a super-sophisticated era like today, fast and accurate information is needed. To meet these needs, inventory software is designed to control the inventory of warehouses owned. The use of inventory software also reduces the risk of human error when inputting data and monitoring. In addition, inventory software is also able to provide real time information and be faster in presenting reports.


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In an era that has been very advanced as it is today, starting a lot of emerging inventory software that can help in warehouse management in the company that you founded. You can do research first before determining which inventory software is your choice. The following are some of the advantages of inventory software that you need to know:

• Able to do automatic calculations


Inventory software has the ability to automatically calculate inventory. You can find out the amount of inventory in real time and accurately. Not only that, you can even know the history of the inventory of goods listed.

• Get Price Information in Real Time


Software inventory will help you obtain information on the price of inventory so that the company is easier to set the desired profit. In addition, recording inventory stocks can also be made easier by using this inventory software.

• Facilitate Audit


Software inventory also helps the auditor's work in auditing the company's inventory. Not only that, the inventory software also helps in controlling the movement of inventory and the needs of document documents.

• Minimizing Time and Costs


Another advantage of inventory software is being able to minimize time and costs due to human errors. The time used to calculate inventory is faster because it is done automatically so that stock taking is faster and less complicated.

• Safer and Integrated Data Storage


The use of inventory software is able to provide much greater storage space than by manual method. You can also see the history of each desired inventory and make a report faster than by manual method. Checking is also much faster and can monitor stock items online.

• Effective and Dynamic


Using inventory software makes your company work more dynamically and effectively related to inventory. The profit generated can also be more optimal and the company's performance can also be optimal. Plus customer satisfaction also increases with fast handling of their needs.


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Of course, in choosing inventory software you should not just choose it as long as you choose. The ideal inventory software is not dependent on the latest technology but conformity to the needs of the company itself. The following are some of the things you should pay attention to in choosing inventory software:

•Price


The price of an inventory software is actually diverse and there are enough choices available on the market. But you need to know that not all cheap digital products have poor quality, and vice versa. It would be better if you buy inventory software according to your needs and budget.

• Features


Each software certainly has its own advantages with each other. The usual difference lies in the features used. If your inventory has various types of inventory and is complex, use a lot of customization software.

• User Friendly


No matter how sophisticated the software is if it is not user friendly it will certainly be useless. Try to buy inventory software that is not only sophisticated and has many features, but is also user friendly so it's easy for anyone to use.

• Flexible and Integrated


An inventory software must be flexible so that it can be accessed easily. The software must also be compatible with devices in your office. Especially if you have a lot of shops, of course it's important to prioritize the flexibility and integrity of a software.

A good inventory software must certainly meet the service needs that you and the company need. One recommended inventory software is Unleashed.

Unleashed is one of the advanced inventory software that does not need to doubt its capabilities. This software is the right inventory solution for various types of companies such as manufacturing, distributors, wholesalers to e-commerce retailers.

Unleashed has many advantages as follows:
• Reporting and inventory control in real time.
• Have a mobile sales application making it easier.
• Able to calculate product costs accurately.
• Can be used for product tracking.
• Can be used to manage several warehouses at once throughout the world.


                       Hasil gambar untuk warehousing management for aircraft


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            AB. WXO  Modern Warehouse Management In The Era Of Customer Centricity


It is all about the customer. Whether discussing product innovation, shop floor processes or IT investments, the underlying priority is likely to be related to customer alignment. Building customer relationships is the key to repeat sales, brand loyalty and products which are immune to commoditization and price wars. This customer focus applies to warehouse priorities too. And, despite increasing complexities in inventory management, software solutions can help manufacturers optimize processes to support a customer-centric approach.

Defining the Complexities 
Warehouse management is increasingly complex. Not only are manufacturers inventorying larger numbers of SKUs, those products tend to have compressed life cycles with high tech components that quickly slide into obsolescent doom. A global supply chain providing raw resources, the need for traceability of components and strict regulations around storage conditions all add to the mounting list of pressures manufacturers face. The most challenging obstacle, though, is the increased demand for highly personalized products. How can a manufacturer possibly stock all of the variations of style, dimensions, materials, finishes and accessories associated with modern product lines?
Even business-to-business manufacturers and fabricators must contend with customers who want to submit customized specifications for industrial products, machinery and electronic parts. Creating unique products which can’t be easily knocked-off by aggressive competition is often the goal. Or, the objective may be to provide major accounts with extra attention. No matter the reason, the reality is an avalanche of Engineer to Order (ETO) and Make to Order (MTO) products. And, they all need shelf space, unique IDs and a place in the system.

Setting Priorities for Change
Organizations today have to make difficult decisions about priorities and determining the projects that merit phase-one funding. Inventory management is one of the most pivotal areas impacted by innovation, yet one that is often overlooked and underestimated for its value when it is time to allocate funds. But, pausing to recognize the significance of readily available raw resources, parts and components helps managers see why investing in smart inventory management solutions is a critical part of keeping customers happy.
When picking a starting point for IT investment, manufacturing executives often automatically turn to the shop floor, concentrating on industrial machinery, workflows, sensor technology and machine maintenance for improvement initiatives. It is easy to overlook the strategic role of inventory management and make the common assumption that the warehouse is just a transitional phase where goods wait to be shipped to their destination. That is hardly the case.
When inventory management is viewed through the lens of customer centricity, the relevance of available inventory, reliable safety stock and parts availability puts a new perspective on priorities. Lack of inventory means processes are delayed, eating away at productivity. When orders cannot ship, customers become angry, eroding loyalty and repeat sales. When service level agreements cannot be met because of missing spare parts, fines are levied and contracts revoked, proving that inventory should be a topic that everyone in the plant considers high priority.

Modern Assembly Demands
Advanced inventory management receives even more emphasis when the manufacturer must manage a large percentage of highly configured, personalized products. Operational tactics, like “hub and spoke” design and late-stage assembly, allow manufacturers to take advantage of modular design concepts with mix and match components. Various systems of a product can be assembled and stored. Final assembly can be postponed until the actual order is received. Then, the right finishes, accessories and details can be added to meet the customer’s exact needs. Assembly tactics such as this are becoming increasingly common as manufacturers cope with customer expectations for specialized products.
Fortunately, advanced inventory solutions help the manufacturer manage this process of storing and staging partially assembled products, components and compatible add-ons. Without highly flexible technology that can adapt to changing situations, chaos would be the new normal. No manufacturer can afford chaos, uncertainty, delays from confusion or gaps in communications from discrepancies in paper-based spread sheets.

Innovation in Thinking
Cross-docking is a practice in modern inventory and logistics operations. Cross-docking allows products which are unloaded from incoming trucks or rail cars to be automatically dispatched to the end destination — without the waste of being put in inventory and then shortly thereafter removed. By storing the products in a staging area or simply reloading them in another transportation vehicle, time and labor can be saved. In cases of less-than-truckload (LTL) shipments, cross-docking simply moves cargo from one transport vehicle directly onto another, avoiding warehousing. In some operations, a staging area can be used to sort inbound materials and store them until the customer’s outbound shipment is complete and ready to ship.
When a manufacturer makes its own components, cross docking capabilities help sync availability and demand, automatically matching the completed goods with open jobs or purchase orders that may be waiting for that component. Such tactics speed processes, streamlining activities and allowing the manufacturer to respond to customer expectations.

Using Scanners and Sensors in the Warehouse
Technology can also be used in the warehouse to improve inventory tracking, reducing errors and speeding pick and pack processes. Barcodes, optical scanners, RFID technology and sensors with GPS tracking can all be used to help warehouse personnel find and pull products from shelves. For manufacturers with thousands of SKUs, hundreds of possible versions, and multi-part kitting requirements, saving time on each order quickly adds up to major cost impact. Even more importantly, accuracy is improved, influencing customer satisfaction.
Next generation solutions can take the advanced inventory system up yet one more level. Wearable technology, voice activated systems and automatic sensor readings all help warehouse personnel concentrate on fulfillment, rather than computer tasks. Some industries even find benefit in deploying driverless forklifts operating on tracks which can quickly move through the warehouse, automatically stopping at correct bins and using robotic arms to pull products. Speed is increased, while also reducing safety issues.

Accuracy Improves Reporting
Improved accuracy is one of the most important ways technology improves inventory systems and helps improve customer satisfaction. Customers hate errors, especially errors in availability, inventory status and projected delivery. Inventory accuracy yields more accurate reporting and analytics, including predictive analytics. The ability to predict needs with confidence means a manager can tighten safety stocks, reducing the amount of inventory kept on hand “just in case” and can practice “just in time” strategies which optimizes space, time and cash flow, while still protecting the customer’s needs.
Accurate inventory of spare parts is also critical to aftermarket service, performing preventive maintenance and fulfilling service contracts with customers. Maintenance, whether on internal equipment or on customer-owned assets, requires inventory of replacement parts and routine consumables like lubricants, ink, filters and belts. Errors in inventory can be disastrous. Planning the projected need for replacement parts can be enhanced by smart Data Science using purchase data to project when replacements will be needed.
Warehouse management may seem like the last stop on the journey toward to the customer, so not critical. This is wrong. Inventory management is a critical part of customer centricity. It is complex, fraught with obstacles, and cluttered with expectations around product personalization. At the same time, it also offers a huge opportunity. When the warehouse management exploits technology, it can be an important differentiator. Inventory management can be a strategic part of the enterprise’s strategy to improve customer loyalty. The warehouse deserves priority status when allocating funds.

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                 BC. WXO  Innovative Warehouse Management Technologies to Adopt


When it comes to warehouse management, constant evaluation and adoption of crucial technologies is critical so as to improve profitability and stay competitive. Today, warehouse managers have a wide array of technologies to choose from as they strive to reduce costs, improve efficiency and streamline operations. They must ensure that goods, materials and products flow effortlessly by optimizing their warehouse operations through the use of warehouse technologies. What are some of the latest technologies being used in warehouse management today?

Machine-to-Machine Technology

Over the last few years, machine-to-machine technology, or M2M, has greatly evolved into more sophisticated systems that help monitor and streamline all automation aspects of warehouse operations. When combined with warehouse management systems (WMS), the latest M2M systems are making it easier to control all equipment within the warehouse that is vital to the order fulfillment process.
This technology helps collect and trade information that provides warehouse managers with actionable information that can verify operational procedures and expedite decisions.

Order Fulfillment Optimization Technology

Every warehouse should consider introducing the latest order fulfillment technology in the market. Different warehouse technology solutions are available to help maximize order picking productivity and boost accuracy. There are two main solutions: Pick-by-Light and Put-by-Light. These technologies help automate warehouse processes and offer a more efficient and lower cost solution over manual picking methods.

Pick-to-Light Systems

These systems use specific light displays to direct warehouse operators to product locations. They make it easier for operators to know which to products to pick and how many. These systems are highly flexible and the technology comes with the ability to plan, control and analyze volumes of orders picked.

Benefits of Pick-to-Light Systems:

  • Increased picking productivity
  • Better accountability
  • Real-time product or order sorting
  • Fewer errors

Put-to-Light Systems

This technology helps direct operators how and where to allocate products in a warehouse for orders. These systems are highly efficient when it comes to picking from bulk stock. The technology is ideal for retail warehouses that deal with apparel, sporting goods, personal care items, convenience foods, groceries and general merchandise.

Benefits of Put-to-Light Systems:

  • High-speed order sorting capability
  • Lower cost operation
  • Ideal for smaller but consistent daily orders
  • Requires less floor space
As new warehouse technologies evolve, Pick/Put-to-Light systems are also being custom designed to combine the durability needed to operate in different warehouse environments with the smart intelligence needed to run changing and diverse workflows with full transparency. The final result is technology that you can rely on to meet your distribution needs.

Warehouse Robotics Technology

New robotics technology has become one of the most sought after technologies for warehouse management. Leading-edge manufacturers are partnering with providers of warehouse management systems to create customized software and smart robots that help manage the movement, storage and sorting of warehouse inventory.
Investing in warehouse robotics technology will highly benefit you. With increasing order volumes, numerous products to navigate, highly personalized order packing and faster shipping requirements, robotics solutions will help you effectively respond to volume growth and perform more tasks with less labor and at a lower cost.

Benefits of Warehouse Robotics:

  • Reduced operational and labor costs
  • Improved productivity
  • Higher order accuracy
  • Faster cycle times
  • Reduced safety incidents
The increasing demand for higher levels of performance and flexibility in warehouse robotics is stimulating some innovative product developments and early adoptions of mobile warehouse robotics. As a warehouse manager, you should choose robotics technology that best suits your needs.

Voice Tasking Technology

This is a hands-free technology that uses spoken commands for picking, putting, receiving, replenishing and warehouse shipping functions. This technology is almost similar to RF technology and is a flexible choice for order fulfillment.

Benefits of Voice Tasking Technology:

  • Improved picking productivity
  • Increased picking accuracy
  • Requires less operator training
  • Improved system control
  • Real-time data analysis and communications
  • Higher ROI

Labor Management Systems 

To effectively manage and control warehouse operational expenses, warehouse managers have to invest in labor management technologies. Measuring productivity can seem challenging, but investing in labor management systems helps take out the guesswork in this critical measurement. When combined with warehouse management systems, you can easily drive reductions in labor costs.
Training is also a critical part of warehouse management. Innovative technology to consider is the use of a learning management system to train warehouse operators regularly. These training systems are designed to be easy to use and create training material and structures that suit your needs.

The Future of Warehouse Management Technology

As more advanced technology is introduced for the warehousing and logistics sectors, it is up to warehouse managers and firms to stay updated on the latest innovations. Upcoming technologies like Pick-by-Vision, Electronic Data Exchange and the use of drones will soon become mainstream in the industry. Implementation of the right technologies will be key to the smooth operations of warehouses and supply chains.


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              CD. WXO  The Past, Present, and Future of Technology in the Warehouse

Imagine stepping back in time to visit a large warehousing operation in 1990. If it were only possible, such an adventure would really throw today’s distribution center advances into focus.

To save you from a meltdown, let’s take a brief journey through warehouse operating developments from 1990 to 2045. While some imagination will still be required on this journey, most of the hard work has been done in the writing of this article, so you can shut down the imagination overdrive and cruise through this rundown of technology’s impact on warehouses and distribution centers.

1990: A Fine Vintage for Warehouse Operators

Welcome to our tour of a logistics warehouse in the late 20th century. Pay attention as we move through the building, because while a lot of things are different to the warehouse of today, many of them appear subtle to the eye, but have huge meaning in terms of warehouse efficiency and productivity.
Perhaps the first thing you’ll notice is just how many people there are. See that supervisor over there, distinguished from the operatives by his different coloured hi-vis vest? Look! There’s another supervisor, and another over there, although you can hardly see her for all the operatives moving among the pick faces in that aisle.

Warehouse Kiva Robots

That’s probably one of the first differences you’d notice between a warehouse of today and that of 25-plus years ago – and of course it’s down to technology.



Today’s warehouses need fewer operatives and hence, fewer line managers, because certain labour-reducing technologies have either made labour more efficient or eliminated it altogether. Let’s briefly consider those technologies:

WMS

Warehouse management systems have advanced considerably in the last couple of decades. In the process they have made many warehouse activities faster for people to perform and generated efficiencies to reduce labour-intensiveness. For example:
  • Paperwork and data entry: WMS has reduced the need for people to spend time completing paper forms or entering data from documents into spreadsheets and other data-management applications.
  • Picking efficiency: Warehouse operatives can pick faster with WMS, because the technology helps to organise warehouses more efficiently and (with features such as system-guided picking) enable more efficient working practices to be followed.
  • Task Interleaving: As WMS solutions have become more powerful, they have extended the concept of system-guidance across all activities, especially those performed by forklift operators.

Scanning Technologies

In 1990, picking was a task in which a warehouse operative would spend almost as much time recording activities on paper documents as performing the actual task of moving items from pick-face to pallet.


Technologies such as barcode scanning and RFID have taken away much of that administration effort, by allowing operatives to simply scan a pick face and enter picked quantities on a keypad.



More advanced solutions even eliminate the data entry altogether, leaving the operative to concentrate solely on the actual picking. Scanning technologies have had a similar impact in other areas of warehouse operation, such as receiving, put-away, and dispatch.

Voice Technology

By adding voice-guidance to the range of WMS functionalities, a warehouse operation becomes even more efficient, as operatives no longer need even to look down at a display to see their work instructions.


Instead warehouse staff listens to instructions and respond vocally, so the majority of their attention is always focused on “doing” without the distractions of task identification and recording.



Like other solutions already mentioned, voice technology reduces labour needs in more ways than one. In addition to helping warehouse personnel get more done in less time, it makes human error a less frequent occurrence, in turn reducing the need for labour to be expended on checking and rework.

Warehouse Automation

The mother of all warehouse technologies, warehouse automation has been responsible for more warehouse labour reduction than any other innovation and, as we’ll discuss a little later in this article, is only offering a fraction of its potential thus far.
Automated solutions are pervasive, and becoming more so as the technology improves in affordability as well as sophistication. The warehouse of 1990 was typically bereft of automation though, with the exception perhaps of rudimentary (but still important) solutions such as gravity-fed racking or in companies with larger budgets, pick-to-light systems.
Now, back to the tour…
Notice how many people on the warehouse floor have paperwork in their hands? In fact, there seems to be paper everywhere… And look up there in the racking. There are rows and rows of file boxes stored on pallets, presumably containing years of paper records and documents. What a wasteful use of good warehouse cube.

The Paperless Warehouse

Fast forward to the warehouse of today, and you’ll notice far less in the way of paper about the place. WMS software, scanning solutions, and other IT applications in the warehouse have eradicated the vast majority of paper forms and documents from the warehouse environment.

Cost of Lost Paper Document

As already discussed, less paperwork is less work full-stop. It also means physical space no longer has to be found for paper storage and archiving.



Warehouse technology has changed data entry processes, enabling data to be entered directly into digital storage and reducing the scope for errors caused by readability problems, lost paperwork, and other issues arising from the translation of handwritten data into electronic bits and bytes.
By removing the need for paper processes, warehouse technology has reduced operating costs (because companies don’t have to spend money on paper, related stationary, or the supply of pre-printed documents). It has also contributed to sustainability, since warehouse operations now place less demand on forestry resources.

A Summary of Our Trip Back in Time

Warehouse management systems, automation, barcode and RFID technologies, and voice guidance systems all combine to make warehouses more efficient, less impactful on the environment, and less reliant on manual labour.
Of course if you’ve been involved in warehousing for some years, it’s easy to overlook the huge differences between warehouses of today and those of the late 20th century, so a quick trip back in time would likely prove quite a shock to the system.

WMS Usage Statistic 2015

Even now, in our less labour-intensive warehouse environments, technological progress continues to disrupt and transform the way we manage inventory storage and throughput. Having taken a look back in time, we should take some time to explore what’s happening in warehouses today before speculating about what the future will bring.

Technology’s Direct Impact on Today’s Warehouses

Now we’re back from 1990, let’s take a look around today’s warehouse, but not one of those in your own organisation. Instead we’ll visit a couple of DCs that you’re not familiar with, to get a broad view of how technology is currently impacting warehouse operations.

Machine-to-Machine Technology Usage Statistic

First let’s visit this distribution centre run by a medium-sized enterprise. Aside from an absence of people with paper, let’s see what evidence we can find of technological impact.

The Partially Automated Warehouse

This warehouse is fairly advanced in terms of technology, but clearly not at the cutting edge. How do we know that?… Well, for one thing the lights are on, so although we can see some signs of automation, this is clearly a warehouse in which people still play a substantial role.
But look, here comes a forklift—without a driver?
Yes, warehouse operations are currently being disrupted by the development of advanced robotic systems, the most basic of which use digital add-on systems to transform forklifts and other types of MHE asset into robots.


A combination of sensors, cameras, lasers, and software can be used to enable forklifts to work alongside people, but without the need for human operators.



Some time ago we published a post about how brewing company Carlsberg uses these automated forklifts to move up to 500 pallets per hour around one of its Swedish distribution centres.
That’s just what we’re seeing here, a prime example of how even more people are being displaced from the warehouse environment by technology. Further examples can be seen if you look around. Over there for instance, you can see a number of pallets on turntables, spinning fast as they are cocooned in shrink-wrap ready for dispatch.

The Fully Automated Warehouse

Now let’s teleport (because we’re using our imaginations, remember?) to a large new distribution centre operated by a consumer goods brand. First let your eyes adjust to the gloom, because there are few lights on here.
This is a fully automated high bay warehouse, housing an automated storage and retrieval system (AS/RS). Linked to the centre’s WMS, cranes on rails fly up and down aisles of racks that extend from the floor to giddying heights above.


The cranes extract pallets using forks and transport them at incredible speed to a conveyor system, which will carry them to a dispatch area and straight into waiting trailers.



Automated warehouses certainly seem to be the ultimate in modern distribution centres, needing very few people to operate, offering high levels of productivity (because as well as being fast, they can operate 24/7/365), and offsetting some of the power they use by operating in an unheated or un-cooled environment, with little if any need for artificial lighting.
That being said, full automation is still a big ticket item in terms of capital costs, often requiring customised warehouse construction to house high-bay storage and specialised infrastructure. That’s why it’s rare to see such advanced levels of technology in use by smaller supply chain organisations.

Automated Warehouse Benefits

For companies that can afford it, and operate in sectors compatible with automated logistics, full automation delivers a great many benefits, including:
  • Significant labour cost reduction
  • Superior levels of productivity
  • A high degree of efficiency
  • Minimal risk of processing errors
  • Improved inventory management
  • Increased supply chain speed
While full automation is still relatively rare, even traditional man-to-goods warehouse operations have been impacted by new technologies, though people may still shoulder the greatest part of the workload. Indeed, few businesses remain untouched by the disruptive influence of information technology.

The IT Impact on 21st Century Warehouses

While automation removes the need for manpower, many companies still consider it either too expensive to implement, or are concerned about the length of time to ROI, which is typically around five years. On the other hand, many software solutions offer a much faster return on investment and are affordable even for smaller businesses.


We’ve already discussed WMS, but other IT applications have also been involved in making today’s warehouse operations more efficient and cost-effective.



Sophisticated analytics help operators find and eliminate process weaknesses; Inventory management software helps companies to optimise stock levels, while modeling tools do the same in construction design and warehouse layout planning.

The Indirect Impact of Technology

When considering the impact of technology on warehouses and distribution centres, it would be remiss to overlook disruptive technology in the wider commercial environment. So before moving on to visit the warehouse of the future, let’s briefly reflect on how warehouse operations have been indirectly impacted by technological advances.


The biggest of these disruptions has been driven by changes in consumer behaviour, which in turn have been enabled by perhaps the most significant innovation of the last century – the Internet.



As consumers have progressed from shopping online to mobile shopping, they have driven a revolution in retail commerce, which has in turn set off a ripple effect to initiate similar changes in business-to-business trading.

Lost opportunity cost for omnichannel retail

Today it’s all about the omnichannel experience—and that has changed the entire supply chain profile in many industries and commercial sectors. All this transformation has led to a distinct shift in warehouse function, from being a staging point for supply chain inventory, to becoming a vital element of the value chain.

The Expanding role of the Warehouse

Few warehouses today are simply storage spaces, but instead host multiple value-adding processes, like just-in-time packaging, assembly, product customisation, and in some cases, customer collection services.
Ironically, the need to add value within warehousing operations has partly slowed the rate at which human operatives become obsolete, since a lot of value-adding tasks require skills that can’t yet be replaced by automation.
The respite however, could be short-lived, as a new wave of disruptive technology emerges—one which many believe will spell the end of the warehouse as a significant source of employment and transform it into a centre of wholly automated activity.

2045 Here We Come


Automated vs Human Labor Cost Statistic

To understand why warehouses may soon be devoid of human presence, we should return to our tour, but instead of jumping straight to the warehouse of 2045, we’ll take a slow sojourn through the next few years to come. Along the way we’ll look at how robotics, sensors, machine-to-machine communication, and the Internet of Everything may make warehouses ever more efficient to operate, while gradually eliminating the need for a human workforce.

Rise of the Robotic Warehouse

In earlier sections of this article, we touched on some of the limitations of current automation technology. To recap, we discussed the need for specialised warehouse infrastructure and the associated cost of constructing purpose-built automated warehouses. We also discovered that some tasks being performed in today’s warehouses require human dexterity and judgment.
All that may soon change, as robotics development begins to solve these problems. However, this article isn’t intended to fuel debates about whether replacing warehouse workers with robots is a good or bad thing.


Instead it’s an attempt to look objectively at future possibilities to improve warehouse operations through the use of technology. So let’s move on and do just that.



Robotics is probably the answer to many automation constraints in warehousing. For example, unlike automated storage and retrieval systems, robotic warehouse machinery (even at the current time) is able to operate in any industrial space, meaning it can be deployed in existing warehouses without expensive structural modifications.
At the same time, robotic capabilities are continually improving; with robots being developed that can perform tasks such as dressmaking, which up to now has always required a human touch. They are also becoming increasingly mobile and capable of multitasking, which means companies will need less machinery to perform more activities.

Robotic Opportunities for All?

If you need evidence of robots’ pervasiveness in warehousing, consider the examples of Amazon, which as of December 2016, had 45,000 robots employed across 20 distribution centres, and bulk grocery superstore Boxed, which replaced 75% of warehouse jobs at one fulfillment centre with robotic order pickers.
By the time we get to 2045, it’s very possible that human warehouse operatives will be a rare sight indeed, as multi-functioning robots become an affordable investment for many companies. Smaller businesses may access robotic technology too, by contracting with third-party warehouse providers which thanks to robotic advances, will make outsourcing the most economically viable way to stage and store inventory.

But What About the Warehouse?

Of course there is more to a warehouse than the operation it houses, and as time goes on, technology will impact warehouse facilities by changing the way they are constructed, maintained, and powered.
Take warehouse lighting for example. If we take a brief hop back to 1990, when you were looking up at all those boxes of papers in the racking, did you notice the forest of light fittings hanging from the ceiling?


Energy use in DC

Those were probably metal halide, sodium, or florescent lamps, all of which are expensive to run on an industrial level and are constructed using materials harmful to the environment.



These lighting solutions are slowly but surely disappearing from the modern warehouse environment, to be replaced by more economical and environmentally friendly light sources, such as LED and induction lamps.
The cost of lighting warehouses is considerable, since illumination must be bright enough for staff to work productively and safely, so it’s no surprise that companies are quick to take advantage of new lighting technology. LED industrial lighting consumes a fraction of the electricity needed to run conventional lamps, and when combined with management systems using sensors and timers, becomes even more economical.

No Need for Creature Comforts

Moving ahead into the near future, we’re likely to see warehouses make further savings on energy costs as automation takes over. Automated machinery and robots need no ambient lighting to operate, so while lighting may be in place for emergency situations or for service/maintenance purposes, it will seldom be switched on.


The cost of artificial temperature control too, will be minimised, since temperatures will only need managing for inventory quality, not for human comfort.



It’s entirely possible that by the year 2045, the warehouse management system will be much more worthy of the title, able to control every aspect of warehouse operation, including security, receiving, put-away, storage, picking, and dispatch, as well as lighting, temperature control, indirect materials purchasing and even some, if not all, maintenance.

The Living, Sensing Warehouse

In the warehouse of 2045, sensor technology will enable everything from mechanical handling equipment, through warehouse robots and storage racks, to the very fabric of the warehouse structure, to monitor conditions and performance.
Machine-to-machine communication will enable the sensors to relay data constantly to the warehouse management system, while integrated analytics and machine-learning capabilities enable that system to pass instructions back to warehouse robots (perhaps including aerial drones for certain high-level tasks).
Interpreting those instructions, the robots will respond appropriately to perform basic maintenance and repair tasks on the building, MHE, automated machines, and perhaps even themselves or each other… And so the warehouse of 2045 becomes a virtual living entity, capable of taking care of itself and the operations it houses, with minimal need for human intervention.
While a certain amount of human expertise may still be needed, there’s every chance that warehouse managers and technicians will simply monitor the operational status from their homes, using laptops or tablets, make adjustments as needed, and occasionally respond to more serious situations by riding out in their (probably driverless) cars to get hands-on with machinery or inventory.

Warehouses Get Bigger, Smaller, Fewer?

So now, with the help of this article and a little imagination, you have an idea of what the warehouse operation of 2045 might look like, but what we haven’t yet explored is the possibility that technology may impact the very existence of warehouses.
Omnichannel commerce could for example, see warehouses evolve into a combination of mega-centres (hosting operations for multiple companies in shared environments) and urban mini-warehouses, used to place inventory close to target consumer markets.

3D Printing Worth by 2025

On the other hand, as technological capabilities develop throughout the supply chain, and techniques such as additive manufacturing make it increasingly possible to produce items on demand, it’s possible that some supply chains may evolve in which warehouses are completely unnecessary. The result could be an overall reduction in the global warehouse footprint.


While we can probably all agree on how warehouses looked in 1985, we each have individual and unique perspectives on today’s use of warehouse technology, typically influenced by the operations that we’re most familiar with.
For example, the views in this article are influenced by the projects we get involved in as a supply chain consulting company, but your company may be using technology in different ways, and your take on future developments may be very different.



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                       DE. WXO  Supply Chain Management for Aviation Industry


                                             Efficient_Supply_Chain_Management

Supply Chain Automation means managing an optimised inventory. It means having the critical equipments in stock and keeping idle items minimised. The Airline Industry are increasingly focused towards reducing their reducing the maintenance costs, keeping a high level of inventory accuracy & deliver high levels of service. Supply chain automation is a great tool to achieve that.

The aviation sector handles items, which are capital-intensive. The items also involve a huge number of components. A lot of these components are moving, creating challenges to track the inventory accurately. The value of the inventory items is in rotable parts. These issues make supply chain management all the more challenging for the aviation industry.

1. Benchmarking and planning of supply chain activities for aviation. The key measures include forecasting the customer requirements, capacity management, analyse the demand patterns, addressing key bottlenecks like hangar space, logistics, engine maintenance etc.

2. Manage Material Request Cycle with complete analysis of requests, days to fulfill the order, delays in processing, warehouse statistics and priority levels etc. The complete lifecycle management can be optimised using SCM tools.

3. Inventory Analysis is used to determine the accuracy of stock, the quantity of items and its values. The aircraft industry is capital intensive with low profit margins; hence keeping an optimised inventory is very important. The value of the stock & the volumes are analysed. The historical records are kept for analysis.

4. Maintenance Operations are scheduled and recorded to keep track of costs. The planned & unplanned maintenance are recorded. The costs for components, time, labour materials etc are taken into account. The cost of ownership also involves effective loss with unplanned maintenance.

5. Vendor & Contract Management is integrated. The supply chain management is particularly complex keeping in mind the global vendor management. Dealing with orders, contracts of vendors from different countries and managing them transparently. The integration of components, materials, structures and systems need to ensure best results to achieve operational success.

6. Track Lifecycle of Aircrafts using SCM. The components and life of the aircrafts are managed with predictive alerts. Know when the component is due for maintenance or is past its useful life with predictive notifications. The items are tracked on a regular basis for proactive replacement of critical items.

7. Invoicing, Bills and stock management can be done with high accuracy. The invoices from multiple vendors in different countries are managed on a single platform. Ensure quality checks, receiving inventory items and processing of bills using an integrated interface.

8. Track & Measure things that matter. Dashboards, key performance indicators are used for planning. The consumption history, maintenance expenses, remaining life of components etc can be used for better capital & operational expenses planning.

The SCM system ensures not only optimised inventory, stock, streamlined procurement and improvised operations. But also results in improved turnaround time from vendors, better warranty and contract managements resulting in overall performance gains for aviation companies. The turnaround time for unplanned maintenance also improves significantly. The gaps between demand & supply can be closed leading to a lean inventory with automated replenishment.


                                   AEROSPACE INVENTORY MANAGEMENT
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Improve Efficiency (Inventory Management)
Efficiency within the aerospace supply chain is essential in order to maintain profitability

Aerospace Inventory Management is need comprehensive inventory management system increases efficiency by ensuring the right stock is at the right place at the right time. When a more transparent view of the supply chain is available, business becomes less reactionary.  Movement of stock can be closely monitored and management can focus resources on proactive inventory planning rather than putting out fires from day to day. It becomes easy to recognize in-service fleet size and location changes. The reliability rate for spare parts becomes simple to comprehend. And, large amounts of data from the Big Data revolution begin to be collected efficiently and effortlessly analyzed to create innovative, knowledge-based strategies that impact the bottom line.
Telematics tracking creates mountains of Big Data useful for inventory planning, and it is becoming increasingly more popular with aerospace manufacturers. This information can be used to drive spare part planning requirements through predictive maintenance.  By having the correct parts available when maintenance is planned, aircraft spend less time on the ground. Telematics is still in its infancy but Inventory Management .

Connect Key Players (Collaborative Inventory Management)
Once the groundwork for a solid inventory management solution has been put in place, aerospace companies can continue to reap rewards by sharing future demand plans and inventory across the entire supply chain ecosystem.  Similar to retail inventory management in other industries
A collaborative approach between aerospace integrators, MROs, and OEMs, helping pass inventory details seamlessly between entities without delay and allowing everyone involved to speak the same language. Instant feedback from the entire network can drive productivity, profit, and customer loyalty while reducing inventory and risk.


Merge Pricing Capabilities (Price Management)
Inventory management is extremely powerful. But those in aerospace who are even more serious about improving profits will want to take things even further by considering value-based pricing solutions as well. After all, optimum pricing strategies cannot be established without understanding the effects a price change will have on sales and, therefore, both inventory and availability.

Software as a Service (SaaS)
The historical concerns around data security and co-located data has given way to the realization that SaaS is the most cost effective way to deliver, administer and upgrade software.  The web-based model not only keeps the total cost of ownership low, but also reduces complexity and aids in transparency by giving users access to real-time accurate information around the clock. 

Do the math! Comprehensive inventory management solutions can produce huge advantages for those in the aerospace industry :
  • Having the right parts in stock reduces aircraft on ground (AOG) incidences, and improves turnaround times.  This leads to a higher customer satisfaction rating and additional revenue from repeat customers.
  • Reducing excess stock frees up capital that can be put to better use growing the business.
  • Forecasting can be improved making it simple to anticipate all types of demand patterns (including slow, lumpy and erratic).
  • Automating day-to-day activities saves time and allows management by exception.
  • By creating more predictability, warehouses become more efficient. Handling and transportation costs decrease.
  • Cost reduction opportunities can be more easily identified.
  • Value chain analysis improves.
  • Overall profitability increases.

                                         Asset Management Programs - Rotables and Repairables



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