In the field of electronics and process data in the zero era ( Electronic efficiency system ) it is necessary to develop an electronic system, especially in the payroll system where the required system with high accuracy and benefits provided also have a high cause and effect and cause increased performance for humans, industrial services and manufacturing as well as military , accurate methods as well as materials and materials appropriate and efficient and effective use of money there are constraints on the system of care and measurement on electronic systems integrated process data is for what, who and when to do the process of sending and receiving financial information both on investment, working capital and development of methods, especially to minimize operator errors committed by humans on the one hand and automatic fault system repair on electronic machine machine for that I explain a little about electron system-based process of payments and financial information as explained in this
Electronic data processing
Electronic data processing (EDP) can refer to the use of automated methods to process commercial data. Typically, this uses relatively simple, repetitive activities to process large volumes of similar information. For example: stock updates applied to an inventory, banking transactions applied to account and customer master files, booking and ticketing transactions to an airline's reservation system, billing for utility services. The modifier "electronic" or "automatic" was used with "data processing" (DP), especially c. 1960, to distinguish human clerical data processing from that done by computer .
High hardware costs and relatively slow processing speeds forced developers to use resources 'efficiently'. Data storage formats were heavily compacted, for example. A common example is the removal of the century from dates, which eventually led to the 'millennium bug'.
Data input required intermediate processing via punched paper tape or punched card and separate input to a repetitive, labor-intensive task, removed from user control and error-prone. Invalid or incorrect data needed correction and re submission with consequences for data and account reconciliation.
Data storage was strictly serial on paper tape, and then later to magnetic tape: the use of data storage within readily accessible memory was not cost-effective. Significant developments took place in 1959 with IBM announcing the 1401 computer and in 1962 with ICT (International Computers & Tabulators) making delivery of the ICT 1301. Like all machines during this time the core processor together with the peripherals – magnetic tape decks, discs, drums, printers and card and paper tape input and output required considerable space in specially constructed air conditioned accommodation. Often parts of the punched card installation, in particular sorters, were retained to present the card input to the computer in a pre-sort form that reduced the processing time involved in sorting large amounts of data.
Data processing facilities became available to smaller organization in the form of the computer services bureau. These offered processing of specific applications e.g. payroll and were often a prelude to the purchase of customers own computer. Organizations used these facilities for testing programs while awaiting the arrival of their own machine.
These initial machines were delivered to customers with limited software. The design staff was divided into two groups. Systems analysts produced a systems specification and programmers translated the specification into machine language.
Literature on computers and EDP was sparse through articles appearing in accountancy publications and material supplied by the equipment manufacturers. The first issue of The Computer Journal published by The British Computer Society appeared in mid 1958. The UK Accountancy Body now named The Association of Chartered Certified Accountants formed an Electronic Data Processing Committee in July 1958 with the purpose of informing its members of the opportunities created by the computer. The Committee produced its first booklet in 1959, An Introduction to Electronic Computers. Also in 1958 The Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales produced a paper Accounting by Electronic Methods. The notes indicated what appears capable and the possible implications of using a computer.
Progressive organizations attempted to go beyond the straight systems transfer from punched card equipment and unit accounting machines to the computer, to producing accounts to the trial balance stage and integrated management information systems. New procedures redesigned the way paper flowed, changed organizational structures, called for a rethink of the way information was presented to management and challenged the internal control principles adopted by the designers of accounting systems. But the full realization of these benefits had to await the arrival of the next generation of computers
At the day
As with other industrial processes commercial IT has moved in most cases from a custom-order, craft-based industry where the product was tailored to fit the customer; to multi-use components taken off the shelf to find the best-fit in any situation. Mass-production has greatly reduced costs and IT is available to the smallest organization.
LEO was hardware tailored for a single client. Today, Intel Pentium and compatible chips are standard and become parts of other components which are combined as needed. One individual change of note was the freeing of computers and removable storage from protected, air-filtered environments. Microsoft and IBM at various times have been influential enough to impose order on IT and the resultant standardizations allowed specialist software to flourish.
Software is available off the shelf: apart from products such as Microsoft Office and IBM Lotus, there are also specialist packages for payroll and personnel management, account maintenance and customer management, to name a few. These are highly specialized and intricate components of larger environments, but they rely upon common conventions and interfaces.
Data storage has also standardized. Relational databases are developed by different suppliers to common formats and conventions. Common file formats can be shared by large main-frames and desk-top personal computers, allowing online, real time input and validation.
In parallel, software development has fragmented. There are still specialist technicians, but these increasingly use standardized methodologies where outcomes are predictable and accessible. At the other end of the scale, any office manager can dabble in spreadsheets or databases and obtain acceptable results (but there are risks). Specialized software is software that is written for a specific task rather for a broad application area. These programs provide facilities specifically for the purpose for which they were designed.
A data processing system is a combination of machines, people, and processes that for a set of inputs produces a defined set of outputs. The inputs and outputs are interpreted as data, facts, information, ... depending on the interpreter's relation to the system. A common synonymous term is "information system".
A data processing system may involve some combination of:
- Conversion converting data to another form or Language.
- Validation – Ensuring that supplied data is "clean, correct and useful."
- Sorting – "arranging items in some sequence and/or in different sets."
- Summarization – reducing detail data to its main points.
- Aggregation – combining multiple pieces of data.
- Analysis – the "collection, organization, analysis, interpretation and presentation of data.".
- Reporting – list detail or summary data or computed information.
Types of data processing systems
By application area
Scientific data processing
Scientific data processing "usually involves a great deal of computation (arithmetic and comparison operations) upon a relatively small amount of input data, resulting in a small volume of output."
Commercial data processing
Commercial data processing "involves a large volume of input data, relatively few computational operations, and a large volume of output." Accounting programs are the prototypical examples of data processing applications. Information Systems (IS) is the field that studies such organizational computer systems.
Data analysis
"Data analysis is a body of methods that help to describe facts, detect patterns, develop explanations, and test hypotheses." For example, data analysis might be used to look at sales and customer data to "identify connections between products to allow for cross selling campaigns."
By service type
- Transaction processing systems
- Information storage and retrieval systems
- Command and control systems
- Computing service systems
- Process control systems
- Message switching systems
Examples
Simple example
A very simple example of a data processing system is the process of maintaining a check register. Transactions— checks and deposits— are recorded as they occur and the transactions are summarized to determine a current balance. Monthly the data recorded in the register is reconciled with a hopefully identical list of transactions processed by the bank.
A more sophisticated record keeping system might further identify the transactions— for example deposits by source or checks by type, such as charitable contributions. This information might be used to obtain information like the total of all contributions for the year.
The important thing about this example is that it is a system, in which, all transactions are recorded consistently, and the same method of bank reconciliation is used each time.
Real-world example
This is a flowchart of a data processing system combining manual and computerized processing to handle accounts receivable, billing, and general ledger
Electronic and manual record keeping
While some business owners prefer manual record keeping systems, most businesses use an electronic record keeping system - making it easier to capture information, generate reports and meet tax and legal reporting requirements.
There are a number of issues you should consider when setting up an electronic or manual record keeping system, as each has certain advantages and limitations.
Electronic record keeping
Most businesses use accounting software programs to simplify electronic record keeping, and produce meaningful reports. There are many other advantages to using electronic record keeping, as listed below.
Advantages
- Helps you record business transactions, including income and expenses, payments to workers, and stock and asset details.
- Efficient way to keep financial records and requires less storage space.
- Provides the option of recording a sale when you raise an invoice, not when you receive a cash payment from a client.
- Easy to generate orders, invoices, debtor reports, financial statements, employee pay records, inventory reports.
- Automatically tallies amounts and provides reporting functions.
- Keeps up with the latest tax rates, tax laws and rulings.
- Many accounting programs have facilities to email invoices to clients, orders to suppliers, or BAS returns to the Australian Taxation Office.
- Allows you to back up records and keep them in a safe place in case of fire or theft.
Electronic backup
Set up a secure electronic backup system to ensure records are safely stored and regularly backed up. Daily backups are recommended, particularly for important records. Make sure the backup copies are stored in a separate location to your business in case of fire, theft or a natural disaster.
For small businesses, the cheapest backup options are CDs and memory sticks. If your business has large amounts of data, external hard drives are a popular backup option.
Cloud backup
Cloud computing provides a way for your business to manage your computing resources and records online. The term has evolved over recent years, and can be used to describe the use of a third party for your storage and computing needs.
Cloud backup services are becoming more popular and can be automated for your convenience, but you should make sure the method you choose protects the privacy and security of your business and customers.
Manual record keeping
Some business owners may want to use a simple, paper-based record keeping system. There are certain advantages to using manual record keeping, as listed below.
Advantages
- Less expensive to set up.
- Correcting entries may be easier with manual systems, as opposed to computerised ones that can leave complicated audit trails.
- The risk of corrupted data is much less.
- Data loss is less of a risk, particularly if records are stored in a fire-proof environment.
- Problems with duplicate copies of the same records are generally avoided.
- The process is simplified as you don't need to be familiar with how accounting software calculates and treats your information.
Streamline your manual record keeping
- Sort and store all paperwork, receipts and payments in 12 separate months.
- Keep all original documents and date all correspondence.
- Record all transaction dates and payment amounts.
- Save all online financial transactions by month and financial year in your inbox and in a separate folder on your hard drive.
- Backup all electronic records on an external hard drive or other storage device other than your computer's internal hard drive.
- Capture nearly all of your income and expenses in statements from both your bank and credit card accounts.
- Request that all statements and bills be sent on a monthly basis - allowing you to reconcile all financial records each month.
XXX . ____ . 0202 Working Capital
Maintain all your hard work with working capital financing
A strong cash flow and ability to pay off bills with working capital demonstrates the performance of your business of industry and services so manufacture but when we don’t pay your people, it is a death sentence to your company. At Payroll Financing Solutions, we understand that sometimes we pay later then expected, equipment breaks down or that unforseen events may cause a good business to need working capital for payroll.
Working Capital gives the business owner the ability to pay his / her people and to pay your bills. Having enough working capital in your business allows things to run smoothly to that you can continue to work on strategy, customer service and executing your business plan.
Working Capital
It is important for business owners and/or managers to have an understanding of what is meant by the term "Working Capital". The calculation for Working Capital is relatively simple:
Working Capital = Current Assets - Current Liabilities
Essentially, Working Capital is an indicator of the short-term financial health of the business or organisation. If Current Assets exceed Current Liabilities, then the business can pay off its bills (Current Liabilities) by using its Current Assets, which are:
- Inventory (stock)
- Accounts Receivable (Debtors)
- Cash at Bank
Of the above three forms of Current Asset, only Cash at Bank is immediately available to pay off the bills owed by the business. Accounts receivable provides cash when the customers of the business pay their debts. Inventory has to be sold before cash is raised.
If Working Capital is negative, that is Current Liabilities are greater than Current Assets, the business is said to have a liquidity problem. There is then a risk that the only way the business can pay its bills is to sell off some of its fixed assets, something to be generally avoided.
However, a business can have a liquidity problem even if Current Assets are greater than Current Liabilities. For example, some part of the inventory may be very hard to sell in the near future or the business has debtors that are very slow to pay up (i.e. they pay 2-3 months late).
If these problems exist with inventory and debtors, then the business may have insufficient cash inflows, or money in the bank, to pay its bills.
Generally Accountants use ratio analysis to understand whether a business has sufficient working capital. Although there are differences between industries and types of business, it is generally agreed that the two ratios below give a good indication of whether the business is suffering stress with its Working Capital:
Current Ratio = Current Assets divided by Current Liabilities
The desired result of this equation is at least 2
The rule of thumb for the Current Ratio is that Current Assets should be at least twice as much as Current Liabilities.
The next ratio is also widely used:
Acid Test Ratio = (Current Assets - Inventory) divided by Current Liabilities
The desired result of this equation is at least 1
If the Acid Test Ration is 1 or greater, then it is likely that the business has a sufficient supply of cash to pay its bills. In other words, the figure of Current Assets less Inventory should be at least as big as Current Liabilities.
How to Manage Your Working Capital
After you calculate your working capital ratio, and find working capital for your business, you may think the work is over.
But after you find working capital loans, it’s important to use that loan responsibly, and take measures to better manage your working capital in the future.
What are the best practices for managing working capital? Here are some basic working capital management tips.
- Keep a Careful Eye on Your ExpensesEven the smallest, most inconsequential expenses add up. And every little bit takes away from your working capital.To keep an eye on your working capital levels, be sure to carefully control your expenses.Setting clearly communicated rules for your employees is crucial to keeping expenses like travel and entertainment to a minimum. Plus, as the business owner, you should be sure to be watchful of your expenses on the company, too.
- Improve Your Receivables Collection ProcessesMany companies have tied-up working capital because their money is trapped in customers’ unpaid invoices.If this is a recurring issue for your business, consider adjusting your collection process to better secure what you’re owed on time.When auditing your invoicing system, think through how you can send out your invoices faster, employ technology to shorten the payment cycle, or make sure your invoices are more accurate.
- Pay Your Vendors On Time, TooWhile you might not think it directly affects working capital, paying your vendors on time will go a long way in improving your cash flow.Businesses that have reduced days payable outstanding tend to have better relationships with their vendors. And having a better relationship with your vendor can put you in a better position for negotiating. With negotiating, you can secure better deals, payment terms, and even discounts.If you keep your suppliers happy, you might save some money in expenses in the long-term—helping out your working capital reserves.
- Reinvest in Your BusinessThis last working capital management item is the most important, especially for growing businesses.Reinvest in your business.Redirecting money back to your company is a good thing.That’s the best way to grow in the short-term. Just make sure you’ve left some room for regular expenditures when deciding how much working capital to have on hand at any given time.Reinvesting in your business can include saving up for new equipment, investing in marketing or hosting an event where everyone can see your products. Use a working capital loan to not only cover your regular expenses, but also invest in growth activities that will pay off for your business in the long run.
| XXX . ___ . 0202 0203 Integrated Systems | ||
How much time is spent tracking an employee’s Work-Path using manual and/or computer based systems that are not integrated? often times businesses track paid-time-off with a spreadsheet, important employee events are scheduled in Outlook or some other calendar program, employee records are kept manually in paper files, basic employee information is entered and re-entered into multiple systems and manual files.
This now which means you get easy web access to work "real time" in the system from any web enabled computer.
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Payroll seems like a simple part of business operations, but it can become one of the most time-consuming tasks for many companies. Managing time and attendance records can result in errors that hurt the bottom line in more ways than one.
Companies still relying on manual or paper-based attendance systems are functioning with inaccuracies of how employees get paid. Add to this a separate system for payroll, and you will find processes rife with errors.
It is too easy for employees working against deadlines and completing daily tasks to forget about filling out timesheets. Those who do remember, do it 10 minutes before timesheets need to be approved. They may forget exactly what they did, when they did it and how long it took.
Without specifics on such information like when employees arrived at work, the length of lunch breaks and when they went home can lead to employees being under or overpaid. The result is many complaints from employees and a morale problem that erodes productivity.
Enter Mitrefinch’s time clock software that is designed to work in concert with all payroll providers.
Mitrefinch Offers a Timely Solution
The need for an efficient system cannot be overstated, considering you still need to account for vacation time, sick days and company holidays. Automating your time clock software with payroll providers eliminates the time-consuming tasks of tracking when employees work. In short, your company saves money and now has a system with employee value proposition to boost morale.
Electronic time clock software quickly collects information while eliminating the need for human input. This ensures minimal errors and accurate reporting for all departments. Additionally, integrating payroll with time tracking provides real-time data analysis for more accurate processing of your company’s payroll.
Mitrefinch’s attendance software is compatible with all major payroll providers to ensure seamless integration. HR sends payroll data directly to the provider’s payroll software. This system works for all pay structures such as salaried, hourly and union.
Key Benefits to Using an Integrated System
There are many benefits to integrating Mitrefinch’s time clock system with payroll providers. An immediate benefit is seeing a significant reduction in paperwork. You no longer have to print paper timesheets with an integrated payroll system. Additionally, department managers are not spending time approving each paper timesheet for the employees who report to them.
Relieving your HR staff from such administrative tasks is a big plus for your company. You only need to enter information for taxes, employee benefits and other payroll deductions one time. This gives your HR staff more time to turn their attention to strategic activities like recruiting and retaining top talent.
Finally, an integrated payroll system helps your company defend itself against noncompliance of wage and hour claims. At any point, you can retrieve archived time records to make sure you are complying with various employment laws.
Allegations of wage and hour violations can be costly. Manually monitoring compliance with regulations is both tedious and costly. With the Mitrefinch time and attendance system, you can retrieve accurate data from an integrated payroll system. This may help facilitate the process.
Instead of spending hours trying to match schedules and pay reports, you can satisfy information needed for the audit sooner and return to the important aspects of running a successful company.
Integrate Time Tracking with Payroll Providers
Ask any manager or payroll professional what is the most time-consuming task of their day and the likely answer is calculating the number of hours each employee works. Doing this manually is a laborious process that can easily result in errors. Whether tired eyes or employees who forgot to submit their hours on time, this important task can quickly become a nightmare.
Mitrefinch attendance time tracking software automatically updates attendance and work hours. This data is used to calculate payroll for a single department or entire company with the click of a mouse.
Integrating time clock software with payroll providers will help you eliminate:
• Errors and typing mistakes
• Manually entering payroll information
• Costly stand-alone systems since you can import payroll data directly to providers
• Unnecessary payroll expenses and wasted money every pay period
• Costs associated with clerical errors
• Buddy punching and time theft such as unauthorized overtime
Integrating your time tracking system works for salaried and hourly employees. Therefore, you do not need to invest in two separate processes. With one system, you can monitor, manage and pay employees.
At the same time, you have a system that also tracks how much time employees spend on different projects. If work requires billing outside vendors, you will have real-time figures from which to generate precise invoices.
An entire automated process integrated with payroll providers ensures accurate processing. With accuracy comes timely paycheck, which is essential to keeping a positive employee morale and loyalty.
Payroll Integration: The Smart Solution
One thing is true for both payroll professionals and business managers: trying to meet payroll deadlines creates enormous stress with manual processes. Errors in payroll calculation are significant, not to mention the cost of time spent calculating hours and keying the data into a system.
Integrating these steps into the Mitrefinch attendance software allows you to connect with payroll provider systems while removing those concerns. Attendance and hours worked are automatically calculated. Management can transfer employee hours directly to any payroll service that is on the market.
Instead of correcting errors from the last pay date, you can end each period with transferring data through interface modules designed to support your entire staff. Your company will realize immediate benefits by eliminating an antiquated paper system.
Employees no longer fill out last minute timesheets and hope their paycheck is correct. The gains you will see from employee value proposition is worth the investment. By showing you care enough to pay them accurately, employees will not question their value to the company.
Managers can now focus on critical tasks without policing attendance records. A bonus is easier reporting for benefits, employee reviews and IRS compliance. Simply put, incorporating Mitrefinch’s time and attendance software with a payroll provider system frees up a tremendous amount of time to devote to other issues within the company.
Another advantage to integrating both systems is to have easy access to information if your company is charged with labor violations. Having accurate, historic records to present during an audit for wage and hour noncompliance can make a huge difference in the outcome. Mitrefinch’s easy attendance reporting module gives you quick access to information that simplifies compliance requirements.
Being able to interact with payroll providers through your company’s time clock software is an affordable and smart solution to a manual process that is typically rife with errors. The added security from encrypted data stored on secure servers helps to ensure the privacy of employees.
Pairing a reliable payroll service provider with Mitrefinch time clock software helps to guarantee 100% integrity of data that impacts every operational area of your company. You can efficiently streamline payroll processing and stop losing money from this necessary task.
Payroll automation
Payroll automation refers to the use of computers to produce paychecks and manage benefit payments for a company or community. Often, payroll automation is integrated into the company’s enterprise resource planning system that provides an overall view of the company’s or community’s finances; in addition to payroll, it can manage customer relationships, production, personnel resources, invoicing and accounting.
Payroll activities
Payroll management consists of several stages and procedures that require expertise in financial administration, such as employment contract management. Payroll management performs the following tasks:
- Calculating and paying wages, settlement of tax with holdings
- Delivery of wage calculations and certificates to the employees
- Compiling statistics for different authorities, and for the purposes of improving activities
- Drawing up employment contracts
- Providing regulatory reports to the tax agencies and insurance companies
- Calculating annual holidays
- Managing deductions for employee benefits
The travel costs and travel invoices from the employees are usually processed together with payroll.
Methods
Payroll functions can be automated using software to facilitate the collection, organization and storage of all information required for payroll calculations and regulatory agency reportage requirements. If the payroll software is not purchased as part of a comprehensive business management system, it can usually be combined with the company’s existing solutions for accounting, sales ledger, working hour management and recruiting. Information that has been captured in one part of the system can be used by other modules. Hours registered in the work management system, for example, are automatically transferred to the wage calculation system.
Benefits
Effective payroll automation collects all relevant information in one place in electronic format, reducing mistakes by eliminating the need to synchronize and manage otherwise duplicate data sets.
The American Payroll Association (APA) estimates that automation reduces costs related to payroll management by up to 80%, which is partially explained by the reduced mistakes in wage payments and invoicing.
Well planned, modern payroll software provides the following benefits:
- It considers collective labor agreements and employer-specific procedures and exceptions.
- It provides a breakdown of the allowances and other bases for wages in the report, with dedicated rows for each day, week and month.
- It automatically follows the legislated accounting and calculation rules in the calculation of annual holidays.
- It manages the drawing up, posting, archiving and reporting of travel invoices.
- When combined with work shift management software, it can utilize data concerning working hours, overtime, allowances, holidays and absences.
Electronics in Daily Life
The word 'electronics' derived from electron mechanics which means the study of the behavior of the behavior of an electron under different conditions of externally applied fields. Compared to more established branches such as civil, mechanical, electrical, etc. Electronics is a newcomer in the field of engineering. Until recently, it was considered as integral part of electrical engineering, but due to the tremendous advancement during the last few decades, it has now gained its rightful place. Life today offers many conveniences which involve the use of electronic devices. Electronics plays a major role in almost every sphere of our life.
The measurement of an quantity plays very important role not only in science but in all branches of engineering, medicine and in almost all the human day to day activities. The technology of measurement is the base of advancement of science. The role of science and engineering is to discover the new phenomena, new relationships, the laws of nature and to apply these discoveries to human as well as other scientific needs. The science and engineering is also responsible for the design of new equipment’s. The operation, control and the maintenance of such equipment’s and the processes is also one of the important functions of the science and engineering branches. All these activities are based on the proper measurement and recording of physical, chemical, mechanical, optical and many other of types of parameters. The major problem with any measuring instrument is the error. Hence, it is necessary to select the appropriate measuring instrument and measurement procedure which minimizes the error. The measuring instrument should not affect the quality to be measured.
The measuring instrument may be defined as a device for determining the value of magnitude of a quantity of variable. An electronic instrument is the one which is based on electronic or electrical principles for its measurement function. The measurement of any electronic or electrical quantity or variable is termed as and electronic measurement.
A signal generator is basic laboratory equipment that generated sine wave signal of variable amplitude and frequency. The adjustment for amplitude is provided in steps. Commonly provided attenuation steps are: (a) 20 dB and (b) 40 dB.(Note that attenuation in dB will be a negative number). In addition to this step attenuation, the continuous knob allows users to set the amplitude to any desired level. The attenuation of -20 dB typically corresponds to one decade of frequency. Hence, introducing 20 dB attenuation is equivalent to going up by one decade in frequency at high cut-off frequency end or going down by one decade at low cut-off frequency end. The frequency adjustment is also facilitated in steps. Usually, the steps provided are multiple of ten. A non-linear dial on the front panel of the instrument facilitates continuous adjustment of frequency. The frequency adjustment dial is non-linear because of non-linear relation between the variation of internal oscillator capacitor and the resulting frequency. Standard audio frequency signal generator have an output impedance of 600 or 50. This is the characteristic impedance of the transmission line that connects the microphone to the input of an audit amplifier. The signal generator thus correctly simulates a practical situation.
An important requirement of signal generator to be used in the laboratory as test equipment is that the sine wave produced by the generator must have an extremely low distortion. This feature enables us to measure the distortion produced by audio amplifiers.
The microprocessor consists of several logic circuits integrated on a single chip. It is usually built using Large Scale Integration (LSI) or Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) technology. It is capable of performing arithmetic computations and making decisions. The major component blocks of a microprocessor are Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), Registers and Control Unit. The block diagram of a microprocessor is illustrated below. The following explain their functions.
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU):
The ALU performs arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction and logic operations such as AND, OR and Exclusive OR.
Registers:
The registers are used for temporary storage of a data during the execution of the program. Certain registers have special functions; for example holding the address of the next instruction to be executed.
Control Unit:
The control unit provides the timing and control signals to carry out different operations with in as well as outside the CPU.
Input
The purpose of the input section is to accept date and programs and transfer them to the CPU and memory. The most often used input device is a keyboard. Microprocessor based systems generally use hexadecimal keyboards. These type of keyboards have 16 data keys from 0 to F, apart from some additional functional keys. Alternatively microprocessor based systems can get input from devices such analog to digital converters ADC and switches as well.
Output
The results of computation/processing inside the CPU are indicated to the outside world through the output devices. The commonly used output device is a series of 7 segment display devices. Alternatively individual Light Emitting Diodes (LED) and relays can also be used as output devices.
Applications of microprocessor:
The microprocessor has wide range of applications. They are classified into special purpose applications and general purpose applications.
1. General purpose applications:
• Single board micro computers: Single board microcomputers have minimum number of hardware and software configuration. They are very simple and cheaper. This is used for the construction of small computer based systems.
• Single board micro computers: Single board microcomputers have minimum number of hardware and software configuration. They are very simple and cheaper. This is used for the construction of small computer based systems.
• Super Minis and CAD: To built a microcomputer 32 bit processors are used. Their performance is more better than others.
• Personal Computers: The computers are generally made up of a 8 bit microprocessor. The 16 bit computers are used for word processing,business accounts, payroll etc.
2. Special purpose applications:
• Instrumentation: Microprocessors can be used as controllers in many instruments. They are also used in medical instruments to measure blood pressure and temperature.
• Instrumentation: Microprocessors can be used as controllers in many instruments. They are also used in medical instruments to measure blood pressure and temperature.
• Communication: In the telephone industry, microprocessors are used in digital telephone sets, telephone exchanges and modems. Satellite communication systems, mobile phones and televisions are also using microprocessors.
• Office Automation and Publication: With the availability of inexpensive and user friendly microcomputers along with wide range of software packages, office works are computerized. Microcomputers are used in office to perform word processing, spreadsheet operations, storage and retrieval of huge information.
Circuit Breaker
Circuit breakers are required to control electrical power networks by switching circuits on, by carrying load and by switching circuits off under manual or automatic supervision. The character of their duty is unusual and they will normally be in the closed position carrying load, or in the open position providing electrical isolation. They are called on to change from one condition to the other only occasionally, and to perform their special function of closing on to a faulty circuit of interrupting short circuit current only on very rare occasions. They must, therefore, be reliable in the static situations, but be effective instantaneously when they called on to perform any switching operation, often after long periods without movement.
Timer Circuits
Relays can be used in many times delayed-switching or timer applications. To begin to understand how timer circuits operate, it is worth spending a few moments studying the internal circuitry of the 555 timer. The device comprises two operational amplifiers together with an R-S bistable element. In additional, an inverting buffer is incorporated so that an appreciable current can be delivered to the load. The 555 timer is without doubt one of the most versatile integrated circuit chips ever produced. Not only is it a neat mixture of analogue and digital circuitry but its applications are virtually limitless in the world of timing and digital pulse generation. The device also makes an excellent case study for newcomers to electronics because it combines a number of important concepts and techniques.
Communicating Information
It is started with telegraphy and now it is reached in radio communication. The radio communication is done using the triode tubes. It leads to the invention of transistor, semiconductors devices and integrated circuits.More recently, the use of satellites and fiber optics has made communications even more widespread, with an increasing emphasis on computer and other data communications. A modern communications system is first concerned with the sorting, processing and sometimes storing of information before its transmission. The actual transmission then follows, with further processing and the filtering of noise. Finally we have reception, which may include processing steps such as decoding, storage and interpretation.
In any communications system, the information to be transmitted must first of all be converted into an electrical quantity which is which is time varying, that is a current or voltage is necessary to represent the signal. In some cases, such as simple telephone link, the waveform of the signal is transmitted directly to the receiving point as a varying current flowing in wires; in other cases, particularly in radio transmission, the signal is used to change or modulate the output of a high frequency generator. The modulation process is defined as the modification of the information according to the signal wave. So the transmission of the information takes place through the modulated wave with high frequency. It is known as the carrier wave, and after modulation it becomes modulated wave. The important types of modulation are amplitude modulation and frequency modulation. In these modulation process, amplitude is varying and frequency is kept constant, it is referred as amplitude modulated wave. Whereas, amplitude kept constant and frequency is varying, it is frequency modulated wave. These modulation process is not depend on the circuits which produce the wave forms.
Sidebands and Bandwidth
Frequency modulation differs from amplitude modulation in that the modulated wave consists of the carrier frequency and numerous sideband components that are generated for each modulating frequency. Recall that AM consists of a carrier and a upper and lower sideband. The bandwidth of an AM signal is determined by the highest frequency of the modulating signal. In FM, the amplitude of modulating signal is the primary factor in determining the amount of bandwidth. The sidebands generated in FM are spaced on both sides of the carrier at frequency intervals equal to the modulating frequency and its multiples. To better understand all of the components of FM sidebands, we will analyze a FM modulated carrier using Bessel functions and spectral diagrams.
Transmission may be defined as the electrical transfer of a signal, message or other form of intelligence from one location to another. Traditionally, transmission has been one of the two major disciplines of telecommunication. Switching is the other principal specialty. Switching establishes a connection from user X to some distant user Y. We can say that transmission is responsible for the transport of the signal from user X to user Y.
Digital Transmission: The information content of a digital signal is concerned with discrete states of the signal, such as the presence or absence of a voltage; a contact is the open or closed position or a hole or no hole in certain positions on a card or paper tape. The signal is given meaning by assigning numerical values or other information to the various combinations of the discrete states of the signal.
Digital Transmission: The information content of a digital signal is concerned with discrete states of the signal, such as the presence or absence of a voltage; a contact is the open or closed position or a hole or no hole in certain positions on a card or paper tape. The signal is given meaning by assigning numerical values or other information to the various combinations of the discrete states of the signal.
The channel is the element of a communication system that is independent of other system blocks. In the scope of physical blocks whose inclusion and structure depend on the construction of the specific, considered system. As we know the connection between transmitter and receiver is established through communication channel. The communication can take place through wirelines, wireless or fibre optic channels. The other media such as optical disks, magnetic tapes and disks etc. can also be called as communication channel, because they can also carry data through them. Every communication channel has got some problems. Following are the common problems associated with the channels:
- Additive noise interference: This noise is generated due to internal solid state devices and resistors etc. used to implement the communication system.
- Signal attenuation: It occurs due to internal resistance of the channel and fading of the signal.
- Amplitude and phase distortion: The signal is distorted in amplitude and phase because of nonlinear characteristics of the channel.
- Multipath distortion: This distortion occurs mostly in wireless communication channels. Signals coming from different paths tends to interfere with each other.
The mobile, alternatively wireless or cellular radio-communications market encompasses radio paging and a variety of radio telephone services that are provided by connecting together two or more mobile devices or terminals via a base station. Mobile communications have a long and complex history and have been commercially available in some form since 1946. Such a network had very little capacity and delivered calls via a fixed wire link to the home. Mobile networks only truly developed once a cellular structure was adopted.
Diagrams That Testers Need to Learn How to Use
#1) Flow Charts:
Flow charts are best for process illustrations. They use specific symbols for each task/type of action that is carried out within the process. It allows for decisions, branches, loops etc., making it a perfect tool for documentation and understanding.
The testers will usually find the flow charts in the test plan, test strategy, requirements artifacts (BRD, FRD, etc.) or other process documents.
The most commonly used symbols and their meanings in a flow chart are:
- Ovals- For start and stop
- Rectangles- For processing/or a task
- Diamond- For decisions
For complete information on flow chart shapes, check out Flowchart Symbols.
To understand a process or flow of control through a flow chart is super simple. It helps with remembering, understanding and serves as a quick reference.
Here are two ways we testers use flow charts:
a) Flow charts for control flow and statistical analysis:
Cyclomatic Complexity is a metric that helps us measure how complex a particular software program is. One of the uses of knowing the Cyclomatic Complexity is that it helps us understand the extent of unit testing to be done in order to achieve complete coverage (more information and links below).
Flow chart is a go-to method to arrive at this measure.
Let’s learn how to calculate Cyclomatic Complexity it for the following program through a control flow chart.
Simply create a control flow chart as shown below and use this formula:
Cyclomatic Complexity: = Number of connections or Lines – Number of Nodes + 2
From the diagram, the number of nodes are 7 and connections are 7.
Therefore, the Cyclomatic Complexity of that piece of code is 7-7+2= 2.
Need more information on how to use the control flow chart and Cyclomatic Complexity?
Check this out:
- Correlation between Cyclometric Complexity & Code Coverage while doing White box testing
- McCabe’s Cyclomatic Complexity and Why We Don’t Use It
b) Flow charts for process illustration:
The following is a defect tracking process represented in a flow chart format. As you can see, it is super easy to absorb and implement:
#2) State transition diagrams:
State transition tables or diagrams are great analysis tools when you are looking at complex systems that undergo a lot of changes from one state to another.
For those beginners out there who are thinking, ‘what is state transition?’- Think of a light bulb that is controlled by a switch. A switch can be flipped ON/OFF. So, the state that a light bulb can be at a given point of time is ON or OFF and the event/action causing it to transition from one state to another is the flipping of the switch.
This can be shown in the form of a diagram or a table. Like below:
| LightBulb ON | LightBulb OFF | |
|---|---|---|
| LightBulb ON | N | Flipswitch OFF |
| Light Bulb OFF | Flipswitch ON | N |
Simple, isn’t it? Let’s take on something a little more complex. Look at a state transition diagram for a ticketing system. It is pretty sstraightforward and easy to comprehend.
Please note that state transition diagrams are usually business entity-centric and not visual page by page navigation-centric.
For example: The core business entity in our case is the ticket itself that is created through the application. The first part, making the ticket, could involve navigating the system through a few pages:
- Page 1-> Select no. of travelers- adults, children, and seniors.
- Page 2-> Choose the type of the ticket- a day pass, a weekly pass, a monthly pass, etc.
- Page 3->Review details and finalize.
- Page4-> Make payment, etc.
So, there might be many different visual page by page transitions but the ticket itself is in the state of being made. So we normally don’t create an ST diagram for visual transitions (you can if you want to, but it is not as often used), we do it for state transitions of the core business entity.
Once, the ST diagram is created, you can use it to easily identify the end to end test scenarios and end-user transactions, as follows:
The three yellow lines are 3 end-to-end cases which when tested, will cover the most critical and most used areas of the application. This is such a beneficial tool to create meaningful test cases and end to end acceptance tests.
For a much more comprehensive explanation and real-world usage, check out => State Transition Testing Technique for Testing Complex Applications
#3) Context diagrams:
Software systems rarely function as independent units. Simple Applications such a calculator, notepad, etc. might work on their own, but enterprise application often interfaces with many other applications.
For example: A payroll system might interact with accounting application, time-sheets system for employee hours and the HR portal for employee details. Context diagrams are excellent diagrams that showcase all of these relationships in an easy to understand way.
The following is a context diagram for the payroll system just described:
A context diagram very clearly shows the context of a certain system with all the other entities that relate to it. For a simple explanation, check here =>
For a simple explanation, check here => System context diagram
Context Diagrams help testers understand the system in a broader sense and aid in creating test strategies that include these inbound and outbound relationships that the system has with the other entities. We might not create a context diagram as part of our testing process, but if available, it aids great comprehension.
#4) Mindmaps:
A mind map tracks a busy mind that hops from topic to topic; every thought getting deeper and branching out wider with each idea. It is a diagram form of just starting with your main idea and documenting every single sub-thought that originates from it.
Mind maps can be used for anything and everything. Although, they are yet to make an appearance in the IEEE, CMMI or other standard templates or process documents, they are still a very popular part of the software industry culture.
One very popular use of mind maps is to track exploratory testing. (I know, I know, you are thinking, why does exploratory testing need to be tracked at all? It is because, with rapid development cycles, agile and other faster methods of software development, it is becoming less likely for testers to find the time and scope for complete documentation. This means, the extent of exploration is growing and it needs to be fortified. Mind maps can do just that for you.)
For example: The following is a diagram for an e-commerce application where you are simply tracking your testing with a mind map as follows:
Testers might not get the mind maps as inputs. But we might see situations when we have to create them. To do so is very easy. Start with your central idea or starting point and follow where your thoughts take you. There are many simple and easy free online tools that you can use for mind mapping. This is the one I used to draw the above map here.
For more information and tools, check out => Mind Mapping in Software Testing – Ways to Make Testing More Fun!
#5) ER diagrams:
Entity-Relationship (ER) diagrams are used for Database modeling. They help us understand the tables, their fields and how fields in one table relate to fields in other tables in the DB system. It shows the components of your DB system and the relationships between them in a visual way.
ER diagrams also act as an initial trial run of the DB model and visualization before DB systems are designed and built.
ER diagrams have entities (the instances of DB tables) and their relationships (one to one, one to many, one to mandatory, etc.) represented using boxes and crow’s feet connectors. ]
There are many variations to the ER diagrams, but the simplest version can look as below:
Image Source
For a quick introduction and explanation, check:
#6) Bonus: Mock up screens/Wireframes:
Wireframes are either HTML or simple images (screenshots) that show us the future UI page/component diagrammatically.
Wireframes are a blessing for testers as they make it super easy for us to visualize the final product and be able to better their test design analysis process. This means better test scenarios, better test cases and in turn, higher test effectiveness.
Wireframes can be simple hand-drawn images, or interactively created web page structures or any other diagrams that are representative of the final system.
A simple wireframe for the login screen can be as below:
Here is a quick link to understand the way QA teams use wireframes for early testing and some tools to create them => Wireframes – Should They Really Be Tested? And If So, How?
To wrap up- How can you create these diagrams if you need to?
Mostly, testers interpret most of the above mentioned diagrams. But rarely, we might have to create them. MS Visio and SmartDraw are great tools to use.
When you do not have access to the internet and all you have is your word or paint you can use the shapes available to create these diagrams (well, at least most of them). This is my least favorite method because it is time-consuming and not as user-friendly, but it will do.
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