MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL THE END OF AUTOMATED CONTROL AND ROBO AMNIMARJESLOW AL DO FOUR DO AL ONE LJBUSAF thankyume

                                                                           X  .  I  
                              Force Measurement and Control as an option  
  
                                                                    last stability

 

Force sensing

As noted earlier touch sensors operate at the point of contact. If however it is required to measure the global forces and torques being exerted on an object by a robotic system, a multi-axis force measurement system will be required. If an object fixed in space is considered and subjected to a combination of the six possible orthogonal forces and torque, the object will deform. This can be measured by suitable sensors. In general a multi-axis force sensor incorporates a number of transducers measuring the load applied to a mechanical structure. These sensors greatly enhance the capabilities of a robotic system, by incorporating compliant damping control, active stiffness control and hybrid force control.
For a generalized multi-axis force sensor, it is possible to write:

where [S] is a single-column matrix of the sensor outputs, [F] the applied forces, and [C] the n*6 coupling matrix, n being the number of sensors. Therefore,

where [D] = [C]^-1 and is known as the decoupling matrix. Thus each of the six force can be calculated from:

To measure the forces and torques that the robot is subjecting an object to, it is necessary to design a suitable structure to mount within the robot's wrist. Atypical four beam structure, with eight strain gauges.


Even though the use of strain gauges is the most common method of measurement, there is no reason why other sensing techniques cannot be used. In addition structure could be constructed from magneto elastic material or use can be made of photo elastic or capacitive sensors. This decoupling matrix will only be valid if the cross-coupling between the eight gauges are negligible. In practice, cross-coupling will occur and the use of the above [D] matrix will result in errors of approximately 5%. To achieve negligible errors, the [D] matrix will need to contain 48 non-zero elements. The value of the elements can only be determined by calibration, using published methods.
There are a number of possible locations within a robo system where information regarding the applied force or torque can be measured, but in general the closer the sensor is located to the point of interest, the more accurate the measurement. Possible sensor locations are:

• At the interface between the end effector and the robo , as part of the robo �s wrist The location requires little re-engineering but the sensor must have high stiffness, to ensure that the disturbing forces are damped, allowing a high sampling rate. The high stiffness will minimize the deflections of the wrist under the applied forces that lead to positional errors. The sensor is positioned needs to be small so as not to restrict the movements of the robot within the workspace.
• Within the individual joints of the robo's by using joint torque sensing, however inertia, gravity loading and joint friction present in a manipulator will complicate the determination of the forces.

The wrist sensor structure discussed above is effectively rigid, however, a force and torque sensor can be designed to have the fast error absorption of a passive compliance structure and the measurement capabilities of a multi-axis sensor. The structure, including its sensing package, is normally termed the Instrumented Remote Center Compliance, (IRCC). In the IRCC, some or all of the remote center compliance deflections are measured. From the deflections, the applied forces and torques can be determined and, if required, used in the robot control algorithms. In the conventional IRCC the end effector interface plate is mounted on three shear blocks, with the base connected to the robo . The applied forces cause the platform to move relative to the base and this movement gives the IRCC its remote center characteristics. The movements can be detected by the use of displacement transducers or by the use of two-dimensional optical position sensors. In the position sensor, a light source fixed to the platform illuminates the sensing element, allowing the position of the light source can be measured in two axes. This, when combined with the outputs from the other position sensors, is used to calculate the applied force, both magnitude and direction. It should be noted that the calculation of the applied forces using an IRCC is non-trivial due to the complex movement of the platform under load.

External to the Robot   

 

The touch, torque, and force sensors that have been discussed are also suitable for mounting external to the robot. In most assembly tasks, the robo is used to make two parts and the applied force can be measured by sensors attached to the workpiece. This information can be used either to modify the robo 's position, the applied forces, or to adjust the position of workpiece. To achieve the latter, the workpiece has to be mounted on a table capable of multi-axis movement.
It is possible to use any of the touch and tactile sensors external to the robo , the only limitation being the accuracy and resolution of the task being performed. While the Maltese cross sensor is usually placed within the robo's wrist, however, it can be placed are almost any point in the robot's structure. After the wrist, the most common place is integral to the robo's base, where it is termed a pedestal sensor. However, it is of only limited use at this point due to the complexity of the transformations.

Force control 

A sub set of tactile sensing, two approaches can be used:

• Passive correction:
• Active correction:

All tasks have a degree of compliance, or give in the environment.
The Remote Centre Compliance or RCC system is a passive system, and relies on a spring and link structure.
The system can correct for minor error in position, both rotational and translational . However the design relies on the work piece ( object ) and the object withstanding the applied forces.
The Instrumented RCC is effectively the same structure, with the springs being replace by elastomer, and fitted with sensors. The resultant movement is used to determine the tips motion, and hence force.
Typical Applications

• Detecting contact
• Contour following

If the tip detect a constant force, which is maintained, the IRCC will remain in constant position relative to the surface.
· The peg into hole problem.
This is a classic robo problem, consider the following:
The function of the chamfer is to improve the chances of the pen entering the hole. In general to achieve insertion, the part must rotate and translate during mating to correct for lateral and angular errors. If required detailed analysis can be undertaken of the problem.
The robo ( Ringing on Boat ) is only required to ally a constant motion, however the detection of jamming or wedging is required.
Jamming is defined as:
Wedging is defined as:
For information, it can be shown that for a successful insertion the following conditions need to be satisfied:
· The initial error in lateral position must be less than the width of the chamfer.
· At the start of the two point contact, the error in orientation must be less than (R - r)/mR to avoid wedging.
· The combination of forces in the x and z direction, and the required rotation torque must lie within a set of limits defined by the geometry of the application.
Force Control
Consider a robot cleaning a window, where due to manufacturing and environmental conditions the position of the window is not accurately know. Using a robot two modes of control are possible:
Position control:
Force control:
In force control, the robot must explicitly control the applied force to the object being manipulated. It should be noted that task constraints require control of the position is some of the cartesian degrees of freedom, and force in the others.
To undertake force control, a number of constraints need to be applied. A constraint is either:
Natural constraint
Artificial constraint
All constrains are referenced to a constraint frame attached to the task or manipulator, consider the driving of a screw into the work piece.
The constraint frame is at the tip of the screwdriver, and rotates with the task. It can be shown that the constraints are as follows:
Natural
Artificial

In order to control a task such a force controller is required, this can be achieved by a number of approaches, including the hybrid position-force control.
It should be noted that:
· Position control
· Force control
The block diagram of the controller is :
The diagonal constraint matrix, S, is defined as:
Hence the actuator control signal for the ith joint is given by:
One problem is the control relies on the kinematics to sort out the transforms, from cartesian ( coordinat x,y,z , etc ) to joints, hence the possibility for conflict is large.

   


examples of control missile  :  

 
  

                  Figure  : Force Sensors  

 

Amplifiers and Controllers 

image above is provides complete measurement solutions consisting of force sensor, strain gauge amplifiers and PID Controller in particular for drives in winding applications. The new 8-channel multi functional strain gauge amplifier module DCX was developed in close cooperation with our customers and results in particularly cost-effective solutions. Amplifiers interfaces are available in the common field bus standards: Profibus, Profinet, DeviceNet, EtherNet, EtherCAT, etc., both for field mounting as well as for DIN rail mounting, ATEX versions for hazardous areas are also available.

 

Wireless Tension Monitoring for Wires & Cables  

                                             X  .  II 

                         Energy Robo ( Ringing on Boat )

 

A robo is something that can be programmed and reprogrammed, by having a manipulator mechanic / driver that is designed to move goods, components or special tools with a variety of flexible programs / easily customized to perform a variety of tasks. From where the robo makes energy? Robo power from:

1. The energy of the atomAtomic reactions are part of the natural chemical elements after experiencing radioactivity, resulting in a source of energy for the robo .

2. Energy from the sunSolar cells emit heat and convert it into electrical energy. Well, the electrical energy from the sun into energy for the robo .

3. The energy from the battery (Lithium)Lithium batteries will generate power source required the robo to move.
4. Energy from fossil fuelsConventional robo's first form of the steam engine. So the robots of this type using the fuel as energy.

5. Energy of glucoseModern robo experts have developed a natural energy source for bio robo form of glucose in muscle mechanics. 

8 Main Components In Robo :

Robo as a function of the application raises the question !! What makes the robo able to think? What makes the robo can move? What makes the robo can get the information from the surrounding environment? What are the eyes, ears, skin for robo's ? 

1. Controller. This is the main part of the robot, such as the brain in humans. This section serves to run the program, receive and process any information from the sensor input, and also send and control the output to the actuator, indicator, or even audio. The program is also downloaded to the controller. Popular development today is the microcontroller. 

                             

                         Figure sample microcontroller  

2. Actuator. This section is like a muscle in humans. Its function is to move the robo. For wheeled robo's usually use a DC motor, a wheel-turning, and make the robo move. And for a robo that walks on legs, Servo Motor is the right choice. Motor Servo is a DC motor which can be set spins. For this type of linear Hydraulic and pneumatic are also used to drive the robo.  

                        

3.Sensor. If humans have a sense of the robo has sensors. There are many types of sensors robo's, humans only have 5 senses, robo's can have a sensor with an unlimited number. Because the robo electronic creature, and rapidly evolving technology. 

                      

                           

                                               

                          

                                   

4. Battery. A source of energy for the robot. As your brain that needs nourishment, and the body you are in need carbohidrat or vitamins. Electricity is the lifeblood for the robot, and the robot can get the electricity needs for controllers, sensors, actuators and electronic components, of the battery. 

                         

                                              

5. Cable. If earlier battery such as blood, then this cable as vein blood flow path in each component of the robo , as well as the nerves that become the data for input and output.  


                                     
                                     


                                 

6. Frame. As the bone supporting the servo robo  . Also that form into various robo' s, and robo' s supporting performances. For such a wheeled robot line follower quite a box-shaped frame, or circular course, as a buffer DC Motor and a place to put the controller.


                      

 7. Chassis. The main framework of the robo , usually become the agency for the robo . Normally a robo mounted chassis on a wide variety of frames, with greater amounts.  




  



8. Support. Is supporting the establishment of robot components, such as bolts and nuts. 


                                   



                 



                                                                          X  .  III

                                         MECHANICS AND ELECTRONICS AND ROBO ' S

Mechatronics and robo ' s
Mechatronics is a branch discipline engineer  that combines mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, and software engineering. In this case, the machine operates automatically through the use of electric motors, servo-mechanisms, and other electrical devices with the use of special software. Examples of mechatronic systems are the most common CD-ROM drive. Mechanical systems open and close the drive, play CDs and shift the position of the laser, an optical system reads the data on the CD and convert it to bits. Integrated software control of the process, and linking content from a CD to a computer.
Robo 's  is the application of science to create a robo mechatronics, which typically has been frequently used to perform dangerous tasks, unpleasant, or too repetitious tasks. This robot can be made in various shapes and sizes, everything is programmed in advance. An engineer would normally wear the science of kinematics and mechanics of creating a robo .
Robo' s are also used widely in industrial engineering. The use of robo' s will save employee salaries, to perform tasks that are difficult / dangerous, and also to ensure the quality remains. Many companies, especially in the automotive industry, has been using the robo , so sometimes it was so sophisticated, the robot can carry out the production process itself fully (no need humans anymore). For use outside the factory, robo' s are used in bomb disposal, space exploration, and many other fields.  
                                           

       Training FMS with learning robot SCORBOT-ER 4u, workbench CNC Mill and CNC Lathe 

In modern robo's, actuators are often associated with mechanics. In mechanics, learned things about various styles that occur as a result of the arrangement of construction, the location of the center of gravity, and material properties. Taking into account the properties of mechanics, the robot will move with a stable and reduce the risk of falling.
Sensors on the robo is often related to the science of modern electronics. In the science of electronics studied matters related to electronic components, analog circuits, digital circuits, and micro controller. A sensor may be composed of a series of analog or digital circuits. Along with the increase in computer and electronics technology, the increased development will be sensors that can be fabricated with the mini size.
Intelligence systems on modern robo developed in a software. Artificial intelligence can be designed using an algorithm that allows the robo to move automatically, taking into account the information about which is read from the existing sensor. In addition there is a connectivity layer between intelligence system with sensors and actuators. Thus, data can be transferred between components managed by hardware using software created for the robo . 


keywords that no one can explain the notion of robo's are:

* Access to information on the environment (via sensor)
* Can be programmed,
* It can carry out several different tasks
* Works automatically
* Smart (intelligent)
* Used in industry
* As a close friend in implementing macro perception
   in the form of a vision, mission, strategies and tactics within the universe. 

 classification Robo : 


1. Non Mobile Robo

This robot can not change position from one place to another, so that the robo can only move some parts of his body with specific functions that have been designed.


example: robot manipulator sleeved


  









2. Mobile Robo

Mobile can be interpreted move, so that the robo can move itself from one place to another. in terms of benefits, the robo is expected to assist humans in performing automation in transportation, moving platforms for industrial robo ' s, unmanned exploration and much more.

example: Robo Line Follower


    








3 . Combined Mobile Robot and Non Mobile Robot

This robot is an amalgamation of functions on mobile robots and non-mobile. so that they complement each other where non mobile robot functions can be helped by moving from one place to another. 

4 . Humanoid robo

The robo is designed to mimic the anatomy and human behavior. The functions of the human body both arms, legs, eyes, and head movement joints and other parts of this on robo applied wherever possible.


example: NASA Robo and robot ASIMO



  

                   

Why Human Body Can Be Stung Voltage ? in relation to the discussion of the mystery of the mass of the electron, proton, neutron and materials without mass movements in relation to electricity for the life energy velocity, acceleration, time, distance, and also as a means of transportation in the future so that people could roam within the anti-matter AMNIMARJESLOW AL DO FOUR DO AL ONE LJBUSAF thankyume

 

                                                                

                          

                                                                     X  .  I

                                              Electric shock waves ripple ripples  


                                                    

Do not come near to electric, then electric shock! It is a powerful phrase that always spoken mainly by parents to their children, when the child is too close to electrical wires.

Even among adults are words often uttered. The incident reflects the fact that we are still high level of alert to the danger of electricity.

Do we ever stung by an electric voltage?

I feel sure if we ever felt that her name-voltage electric shock 

 Question layman also appear, namely, why can stung electrical voltage? Well this time we discussed this matter.Electricity is the energy source that is distributed via cable and sourced from Power Plant which is passed through a 150 kv transmission and then headed to the distribution of 220v (normal use).Electrical voltage arises because the electric charge that flows from positive to negative channel channel and can be interpreted as electrons and protons that will lead to the withdrawal and rejection of electromotive force.Voltage electric shock occurs when a person touches a conductor or bare wires electrical voltage being fed back and forth inside the human body or other living creatures, and on the other, the body is also touching the other.Examples I have ever experienced, a mason was painting the walls with very long handles, on the one hand, the wall is too close to the network or power lines with a voltage of 20,000 volts and the builders do not use shoes or footwear.Then accidentally touched the handle of the bare wires, and the person is stung by an electric voltage direct result, these people become burned and died.The above example can we interpret. Voltage power cable as the positive and negative voltage Land as, if Voltage Positive and negative voltages united, there will be a shock or a trip to the barrier. 

 The human body is an excellent conductor of electricity because it contains most of the water conductive.An alternating electric voltage containing frequency and energy, so that when the human body is electrified, affecting the internal organs, in which the most fatal consequence is death.That's why when we were electrocuted mildest only then after it will feel achy or tingling in the sting.The solution to avoid electric shock voltage:Electrical hazards can be avoided if we know how electricity works this. There are some solutions that we do for the home.

    Do not try to touch the bare ends of the wires, if we do not know whether it's cable voltage or not. Use the pen test to be sure. This is a safety rule
    If your hands are wet, must be dried before install or remove the "plugs" to or from the electrical outlet.
    If you feel scared when installing or revoke "plugs" to or from the electrical outlet, because look at the quality of "plugs" electricity that is not convincing, you can stand on a carpet, a rubber mat or wear rubber shoes or slippers when performing such activities. This will prevent any danger of electric shock because there is no electric current flowing in the body.
    Replace with a new one for the "plugs" electrical "socket" or cable that was chipped when viewed inconclusive.
    If there are "plugs" or "socket" electricity are exposed to splashing water (usually when it rains), should not be used until it is completely dry first or first dried with a dryer. In some cases, the "outlet" must be given the isolation from being used by others.
    Lastly, never underestimate electricity at all times wherever we are, just a small example of an employee in the field of electricity only fear the presence of voltage, but would not want to keep working for voltage distribution burning electricity for households and businesses.Because the human body contains a voltage neutral / negative (in my opinion) then if connected or touched a positive voltage there will be a short relationship (shock) and the resulting magnetic switch and circuit breaker meter down.And if we touch the neutral wire (negative) then nothing will happen, because the same - the same neutral (negative). 


                                                                       X  .  II  
                                                      Danger Vs AC DC Power Flow  

 Undeniably electricity is very useful for life. Humans will have difficulty surviving serious enough when a single day of worldwide electricity should be turned off. Arguably electricity is a primary need of human life, because almost all human activities requiring electricity.In accordance with the electricity that we know there are two types of electric AC and DC currents. However, there is little knowledge and understanding of the difference. In addition, people often mistaken about the dangers of electric AC and DC currents. Included therein is an understanding of the shock / electrocution fairly dangerous. In line with these problems this paper was written so that at least the least can recite the problems above.Such problems need to be widened because not everyone knows the notion of electric AC and DC current. Similarly, the difference is, this time only a part of the general community
 
    What is the current electrical AC and DC?

    What is the difference between AC and DC electrical current?

    How is the danger posed AC and DC electrical current?

    How a shock hazard ratio of AC and DC current?


    gives understanding on:
 
    Knowing the notion of electric AC and DC

    Distinguishing electric AC and DC currents

    Understanding the danger of electric AC and DC

    Knowing a shock hazard ratio of AC and DC currents  



Understanding Electricity Flow of AC and DCAC which stands for Alternating Current. AC current is an electric current whose value varies with time unit. These currents can also be called by an alternating current. Alternating current electricity generated by the power supply voltage generation sources contained in the centers of power plants. In umumnyalistri alternating current widely used in everyday life, such as home lighting (lamp) and household use such as angina fans, irons, and others.Meanwhile, DC is an abbreviation of Direct Current. DC current is the electric current value is fixed or constant over time unit. These currents can also be called by a direct current. Examples of direct current power source is batteries and accumulators (batteries). That's why a lot of electricity is used for electronic devices, control, automotive, and others.However, in line with technological development AC electric current can be converted into electricity DC current, and vice versa. How to change it by using a tool called a power supply or adapter. Examples of changes AC power into DC is a mobile phone charger is used to charge mobile phones (DC) via an AC mains installed in homes.


        Differences in AC and DC Power FlowJudging from the definition of electric AC and DC current is already different. But that the difference between AC and DC more visible so easily understood, it is necessary also to learn some of the differences that are special.The first difference that can be seen from the waveform. Wave forms can be examined using an oscilloscope. what is oscilloscope tool used to view the generated sine wave AC and DC power. wave forms will both be visible difference when viewed through an oscilloscope.  


The second difference can be seen from the method of its use. AC current has a magnitude and direction changing back and forth. That is, the current pole is always changing from positive to negative and negative to the positive. Therefore, although the outlet (electrical socket) mounted commute will not happen surge or other damage. Conversely, if a battery is installed upside down DC electric current, the battery charge will not work. Even for electric tools DC else will happen abnormal function. This happens because the DC current poles never changes from positive to negative and vice versa.  

Electrical Hazards AC and DC currentsActually, the danger of electric AC and DC current is the same, namely because of the sting. However, the danger level is quite different. This will be discussed in the next section.Electric shock or often referred to stun a danger that often occur due to human error. The term shock can be interpreted as an event of a short circuit in which the human body becomes a conductor for electric current. Conductors are objects that can conduct electricity. Another definition of a shock is an event flow of electric current on the human body due to contact between the human body with electric sources that can cause stimulation (stimulation) during excessive. That is what causes the onset of pain when electrocuted.


            The process of shock on the Human BodyWhen someone is electrocuted the electron transfer occurs in a chain of every atom in the body are affected. Atom is the smallest part of an element, while the element is a single substance that can not be decomposed into other substances simpler. Atoms in a collapsed man means the smallest part of the elements that make up the human body. Note also that the electron is negatively charged subatomic. Electric current is the flow of electrons.

The lights in the houses can be lit because there are electrons by the road passing through and heats the filament inside the bulb to light up. All the electric current will undergo a cycle from the point of departure of electricity at power plants and then passing electric appliances in homes, and then ended up on the ground / earth (ground). As has been described that the human body is a conductor so that if one member of the body touching electricity and other body parts touching the ground (ground), then the electric current will flow through the body. The human body is the fastest way for the electric current to reach the ground. If there is an obstacle in the body, then some energy to transfer electrons is transformed into heat energy. The pain experienced is due to the movement of electrons that stimulate nerves excessively.
 Some of the factors that lead to diverse effects of electric shock are:

    The physical size of the contact areaThe bigger and more spacious area of ​​contact between the body and electrical equipment, the lower the barriers to the installation, the more electric current flowing through the body and consequently getting worse.

    body conditionThe condition of the victim's body means the health condition of the victim. If the electric shock of the ill consequences would be more severe than the victims are in prime condition. 

 Barriers / detainee's bodyWhen human skin is dry, the body becomes high detainees and sufficient to protect electrical shock hazards. However, the condition of the skin is completely dry very rare, for trend everyone will issue the sweat, although only slightly. Therefore, the body is considered always wet so the prisoners to be low and the possibility of shock is high.This body of prisoners also influenced by the sex of adult women have different body prisoners with adult males. Prisoners adult female body lower than prisoners adult male body. Therefore, the electric current flowing to the adult female bodies tend to be larger and certainly more severe consequences.

    number of mili ampereMilli amps is the unit used to measure electric current. The greater the electric current passing through the human body, the greater the risk of shock caused to the human body. The threshold electric shock can be seen in the following table.

    Current limit
  

    Possible effects on the human body

    1 mA
  

    Level perceptions, feel their little electric current

    5 mA
  

    Surprised, not painful but annoying

    6-30 mA
  

    Sick and very surprising, loss of muscle control

    50-150 mA
  

    Great pain, muffled breathing, the muscles contract harder and no longer able to release the conductor, possible death

    1000-4300 mA
  

    Ventricular fibrillation (heart rhythm loss), muscle contraction and nerve damage occurs. Very possible death.

    10,000 mA
  

    Cardiac activity restrained, severe burns, and death occurs 



   


Electrical Hazard Flow Comparison AC and DC.Basically all forms of dangerous electric shock. But not many know exactly which one is more dangerous between AC and DC current. Before you answer that, it's good when listening to some opinions about the level of danger of the two types of currents.The first opinion says that the DC current is more dangerous. For example a person was electrocuted with 200 volts at the hands of AC current. AC current is an alternating current / up and down so that one day will reach O volt voltage during the cycle. At that moment the body that sting can escape from the conductor that makes the body stung. While the DC current is a direct current, voltage means passing will stabilize at a value of 200 volts and will never reaches 0 volts, because that body does not have a chance to break away so that it would be more harmful to the human body. However, if the frequency of the AC current is high, the body will be difficult to feel the cycle in which the AC voltage reaches 0 volts.The second opinion said that the AC current 3-5 times more dangerous than DC current at the same voltage. When the DC current electric shock muscles tend to contract so as to disengage from the relationship. While on AC current, the flow reversed direction 50 times per second so that the muscles unable to contract in one direction, but it back and forth and tend to spasm at the point of contact, as long as the victim is still conscious relationship can not escape.Judging from the capacity of the occurrence of cases of electric shock, the AC current flows tend to be more dangerous than DC. During this time more and more people are shock AC (mains) of the DC current. However, the opinion is not valid if the voltage that is owned by an electric current is small. The first opinion is certainly appropriate DC current is more dangerous in these conditions.

Several conclusions can be draw : 

    AC (alternating) electric current value is changed-changed to the unit of time. While the DC current (unidirectional) is an electric current which is fixed to the unit time.

    differences electric AC and DC currents can be seen through the wave forms and methods of their use.

    both AC and DC electric current had the potential to sting the human body is negligent with effects that vary according to the factors that influence it.

    AC electric current is more dangerous than DC current. However, this argument does not apply if the amperage is happening is small.


referring to the concept of static electricity was the actual state of shock theory refers to electricity accumulated on the surface of an object. This set of electricity will remain on that object until it flowed into the earth or neutralized by the release (discharge). The release is what we call an electric shock.The process goes something like this:All things in this world have the atom. Is that a human body or the shoes we wear. Each atom is composed of smaller parts again,  protons (positive), electrons (negative) and neutrons (neutral). Among these three, the electron is most pleased to move.If the number of electrons on an object more than a proton, then it will negatively charged. If the number of electrons is less, then he would be positively charged.When two objects are touching, like a shoe that touches the carpet, a small portion of electrons from the carpet will switch to the shoes that you wear. Thus, the shoes will have excess electrons that make it a negative charge.When negatively charged object touches an object that is charged positive, the excess amount of electrons at the negatively charged object will jump to the positively charged object to balance the load.Therefore, for example, when you touch a door handle (positively charged), then the electrons from your body will immediately jump to the door handle. You could feel this shift in the form of electric shock.Shock or stun can be felt by someone if they touch an object that is capable of functioning as a conductor, such as metal, water or even another human body. Fred's case, he had been electrocuted when touching her sister. It is quite normal considering the human being can function as an electrical conductor (Because when you touch someone who is being electrocuted electricity, you will also electrocuted).However, these stun can only be felt if the electricity exceeding 4,000 volts (Body everyone has different sensitivity so its size will not be the same for everyone). Generally, electricity collected only about 5,000 volts. But in some cases, the accumulated electricity could be greater. As Frank, who accumulate static electricity up to 40,000 volts.Then, the question is, how static electricity can accumulate in the body without us knowing?We live in an environment filled with static electricity. Actually, each of our actions, such as walking, leaning on a chair, sit or sleep can cause static electricity accumulated. However, such activity only produce static electricity in the amount so small that we could not feel the effect.But, if some factors are met, the levels of accumulated electricity could be larger. Under these conditions, the chances of us being electrocuted becomes increasingly larger as well.

Some indications of electric shock1. Effects on the heart (Cardiac)
    5A AC currents can cause asystole. Another effect is damage to the vessels of the heart (myocardial).2. Effects on skeletal muscle
   Electric current of more than 15 -20 mA display symptoms are severe contractions (tetanic contraction) that
   causes the body difficult to break away from a power source resulting in the release syndrome
   arms and spine if an electric shock on the arm.3. muscle injury
    Thrombosis and occlusion which produces ischaemia and necrosis What happens in the arm
    resulting in muscle damage and require amputation.4. Injury nervous system (Neurological injuries)

   Damage can occur centrally or in part and immediate and long term. If the electric shock
   The second pass through the shoulder, then the damage the spinal cord may occur. While electric shock
  on the head causing disturbances on the respiratory system, long-term effect
  such as epilepsy, encephalopathy , and Parkinsonism. Another effect of electric shocks also lead to failure
  kidney, rupture of the eardrum (high voltage), cataracts.



                                                                   X  .  III   
                          Why birds are not electrocuted when perched on electric wires ? 
                                                      


 As we know .. not only birds not electrocuted squirrel else .. so .. not electrocuted although pacing electrical wiring. 

                 

Definition of shock ..

A process of electrical current from the outside to the body. Shock occurs due to contact of the human body with a source voltage high enough to cause the flow through the muscles or hair. When the shock, there is a potential difference (potential flows from high to low) so that it appears the voltage between the body and our environment.  

why birds can not electrocuted ?????

An electric current can flow when there is a closed circuit. such as physics experiment ever practiced during school. a light that we connect with the battery can be lit, if there is a closed circuit, that is, when the switch is connected.

It happened because of a potential difference flows from the positive pole to the negative pole of a battery. try  ... how when the two ends of the same poles .. certainly not the electric current flowing ..?  


                      

the logic flows like water, flowing water is usually because there is a height difference of (potential) flow from high to low potential .. so does the flow of electric current ...

According to the AC circuit concepts

At the time of the bird perched on electric wires, they will not be electrocuted, because the bird just landed on a cable and does not cause changes in electrical voltage in its host cable. Their feet do not touch the wires neutral or ground (earth). So there is no potential difference in the flow through the body of the bird it was, so that the birds will not be electrocuted. 


Observe the state of lights in the figure below, is not always birds  if it landed safely, can burn too


            


if you happen to touch more than one cable. Another example is when we test an existing flow in the outlet suppose. Indicator lights on the pen test will be on when we put the tip of our fingers. why in the test pen indicator lights can be lit, but no switch? That is because our bodies are still in contact with the ground or ground that would lead to the flow of electric current to the ground through our bodies. Now try adding insulation in your legs, then the indicator lights on the pen test will be dimmed as well.

if humans touch electrical wires like a bird that gripped the cable, then humans would not shock (of course with the feet not touching the ground because the ground can serve as ground so that there difference in voltage so that the electrical flow with the conductor of the human body).

So if you're stringing wires or medium project electrical circuit, our feet are always given a pedestal to avoid direct contact with the ground ... 




                                                                    X  .  IIII 

   
               Illustration of an interstellar spacecraft is being accelerated toward the speed of light

the mystery of the mass of the electron, proton, neutron and materials without mass movements in relation to electricity for the life energy velocity, acceleration, time, distance, and also as a means of transportation in the                                                                        future  

_________________________________________________________________________________  


                      

                            Acceleration star ships hurtling toward the speed of light (illustration)  



mystery Massa  


Most people thought he knew what it was the masses, but they only understand a part of the story. For example, an elephant is obviously bigger and heavier than an ant. Without the presence of any gravity, the elephant will have a larger mass - it will be more difficult to be driven and driven. Inevitably, the elephant is more massive because so much more is made of atoms than the ant, but it does determine the mass of each atom? What about the particles that make up atomic element - what determines their masses? In fact, why do they have mass?We see that the problems of the masses has two separate aspects. First, we need to study how mass arises at all. It turns out mass results from at least three different mechanisms, which I will describe below. The key players in the theories of physics while this physicists of the mass is about a new type of field that permeates all of reality, called the Higgs field. The mass of elementary particles ascribed to the interaction with the Higgs field. If the Higgs field exists, theory demands that she has a particle, the Higgs boson. Wear particle accelerators, scientists are now hunting for the Higgs.The second aspect is that this time we would like to know why different types of elementary particles have mass quantity specific. Their intrinsic mass disputing at least 11 orders of magnitude, but we do not know why it should be so. For comparison, the elephant and the ant odds smallest mass of about 11 orders of magnitude.  


What Actually Mass memory flyer  ?Isaac Newton put forward the earliest scientific definition of mass in 1687 in his famous work, the Principia : "The quantity of matter is the measure of matter, arising from its density and magnitude together." Very basic definition is good enough for Newton and other scientists for more than 200 years. They understand that science must first begin by describing how everything works and then understand why. However, in recent years, the cause of the masses has become a research topic in physics. Understanding of the meaning and origin of mass will complement and extend the Standard Model of particle physics, the theory that describes the strong domiciled particles known elements and their interactions. It would also solve the mister - physical fantasy mystery as dark matter, which is assumed to make up about 25 percent of the universe.The foundations of our modern understanding of the masses far more complicated than Newton's definition and is based on the Standard Model. At the heart of the Standard Model there is a mathematical function called a Lagrangian function, which is representative of how diverse particles interact. From the function, by following the rules known as relativistic quantum theory, physicists can calculate the behavior of particles of elements, including how they come together to form compound particles, such as protons. Good for elementary particles or particles of compounds, we can then calculate how they will respond to the force, and to force F, we can write Newton's equation F = m a, which connects the force, mass, and acceleration is generated. Lagrangian tell us what to wear for m here, and that is the mass of the particle.But mass, as we usually understand it, do not just appear in F = ma alone. For example, Einstein's theory of special relativity predicts that mass memory flyer  particles in the vacuum chamber runs at the speed of light and that the particles are mass memory flyer run slower, in a way that can calculate if we know their masses. The law of gravity predicts that gravity acted on the masses and energy, in a way that precision. The quantity m deduced from the Lagrangian for each particle behave appropriately with all that way, just as we expect him to a certain mass.

 Overview

         Mass is an attribute of everyday materials, but in many ways he really mysterious to scientists. How elementary particles acquire mass, and why they have a specific mass?
         Answers to these questions will help theorists complement and extend the Standard Model of particle physics, which describes the physics that govern the universe. Expanded Standard Model may also help solve the riddle of the invisible dark matter that make up about 25 percent of the cosmos.
         Theories state that elementary particles acquire mass by interacting with a quantum field that permeates all reality. Experiments at particle accelerators may soon detect direct evidence that so-called Higgs field is. 


Fundamental particles have intrinsic mass known as a rest mass (mass memory flyer particles called mass memory flyer silent zero). For particles of compounds, the rest mass of constituents as well as the kinetic energy of motion and potential energy of interaction contributes to the total mass of the particle. Energy and mass are connected, as described by Einstein's famous equation, E = mc2 (energy equals mass times the speed of light squared).Examples of energy that contribute to the mass contained in the most familiar kind of matter in the universe-the protons and neutrons that make up atomic nuclei in stars, planets, people, and everything we see. These particles amount to 4 to 5 percent of the mass-energy of the universe [see box Inventory Cosmic]. Standard Model tells us that protons and neutrons are composed of particles of elements called quarks bound together by mass memory flyer particles called gluons. Although the constituents of the swirling inside each proton, from the outside we see a proton as a coherent object with intrinsic mass, which is determined by the addition of mass and energy constituents.Standard models allow us to calculate that almost all the mass of protons and neutrons is derived from the kinetic energy of their constituents, the quarks and gluons (the rest is the rest mass of the quarks). So, about 4 to 5 percent of the entire universe-almost all the familiar matter around us-from energy of motion of quarks and gluons inside protons and neutrons.Higgs mechanism

Unlike protons and neutrons, the particles are truly elementary-such as quarks and electrons-is not made of smaller pieces. An explanation of how they got into the heart of the problem of the rest mass of the origin of mass. As I noted above, the information submitted by the contemporary theoretical physics is that fundamental particle masses arise from interactions with the Higgs field. But why the Higgs field is present in the entire universe? Why power is not zero on a cosmic scale, such as electromagnetic fields? What is the Higgs field?Higgs field is a quantum field. Sounds mysterious, but the fact is that all elementary particles arise as quantum a quantum field concerned. Electromagnetic fields are also a quantum field (its elemental particles are photons). So in this case, the Higgs field is no more enigmatic than electrons and light. However, the Higgs field is different from all other quantum field in three crucial things.The first difference is rather technical. All the terrain has an attribute called centrifuge, quantity intrinsic angular momentum possessed by each of the particles. Particles like electrons have ½ rounds and the majority of particles associated with style, like the photon, has a centrifugal 1. Higgs boson (Higgs field particles) have a whirl whirl 0 0. Having allow the Higgs field to appear in the Lagrangian differently than particles other particles, which in turn allows-and produce two other special feature. 

The unique attributes of both the Higgs field explains how and why he has the power of non-zero in the whole universe. Any system, including the universe, will tumble to the lowest energy status, such as a ball toward the valley floor. For the familiar fields, such as electromagnetic field that gave us the radio, the lowest energy status is the status in which the field has a value of zero (in other words, the field disappeared) -if a non-zero field is inserted, the energy stored in fields before raising a net energy system. But for the Higgs field, the energy of the universe is lower if the field is not zero but rather have a non-zero constant prices. In terms of the valley metaphor, for ordinary fields, the valley floor is in zero field locations; for the Higgs, the valley has a small hill in the center (at zero field) and the lowest point of the valley to form a circle around the hillock [see box attributes Higgs Difficult Understood]. The universe, like a ball, so stop somewhere in this circular trench, which can be equated with the price of the non-zero terrain. In other words, in a state of lowest energy, the universe infiltrated by the Higgs field is non-zero. 


Last special characteristics Higgs field is a form of interaction with other particles. These particles interact with the Higgs field behave as if they have mass, proportional to the field strength times the strength of the interaction. Mass arising from the tribes in the Lagrangian that has particles that interact with the Higgs field.However, our understanding of this is not yet complete, and we are not sure how many types of the Higgs field exists. Although the Standard Model Higgs field requires only one to produce all the mass of elementary particles, physicists know that the Standard Model should be replaced by a more complete theory. The main competitor is an extension of the Standard Model, known as super symmetric Standard Model (SSM). In these models, each particle of the Standard Model have what is called super partner (not detected) with the attributes closely related [see "The Dawn of Physics beyond the Standard Model," by Gordon Kane, Special Edition Scientific American - The Frontiers of Physics, 2006]. With the super symmetric Standard Model, the Higgs field at least two different types are needed. Interaction with these two fields give mass to the particles of the Standard Model. They also provide some (but not all) mass on super partner. Two Higgs field gave birth to five kinds of Higgs boson: three electrically neutral and two charged. Massa particles called neutrinos, which is very small compared with the mass of other particles, may arise indirectly from these interactions or of a third kind of the Higgs field.Theorists had some reason to think true picture SSM Higgs interactions. First, without the Higgs mechanism, the W and Z bosons which mediate the weak force would be mass memory flyer, like photons (associated with them), and the weak interaction to be as strong as the electromagnetic interaction. The theory holds that the Higgs mechanism confers mass to the W and Z bosons in a very special way. Predictions that approach (such as the ratio of the mass of the W boson and Z) have been confirmed experimentally.Second, essentially all other aspects of the Standard Model has been tested well, and with such detail the theory of continuous hard to change one part (eg Higgs) without affecting the rest. For example, the analysis of precision measurement attributes W and Z bosons carry on accurate prediction of the top quark mass before the top quark is produced directly. Changing the Higgs mechanism would undermine such predictions and other successful predictions.Third, the Standard Model Higgs mechanism works very well for giving mass to all particles of the Standard Model, the W and Z bosons, also quarks and leptons; alternative proposals generally do not. Furthermore, unlike other theories, SSM provides the framework to unify our understanding of these natural forces. Lastly, SSM can explain why the "valley" to the energy of the universe has a form required by the Higgs mechanism. In the Standard Model the base, forms the valley should be included as a postulate, but in the SSM forms can be obtained mathematically.

 Theory testOf course, physicists want to run the test directly against the idea that mass arises from the interactions with Higgs fields differ. We can examine three key features. First, we can look for signs of particles called Higgs boson. Quantum-quantum must exist, otherwise, the explanation is not true. Physicists are currently searching for the Higgs boson at the Tevatron collider at Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, Batavia, Illinois.Secondly, once they are detected, we can observe how the Higgs boson-boson interacts with other particles. The tribes in the Lagrangian which determine the mass of the particle also specify attributes such interaction. So we can run experiments to test quantitatively the presence of the tribes of the type of interaction. The strength of the interaction and the number of particle masses are uniquely connected.Third, set a different Higgs fields, as contained in the Standard Model or various SSM, implies set-boson Higgs boson is different with different attributes, so the test can distinguish these alternatives anyway. What needs to be done to run the test is right-particle collider have sufficient energy to produce a Higgs boson-boson is different, has an intensity sufficient to generate quite a lot, and had a very good detectors to analyze the resulting.Practical problems in the implementation of such testing is that we do not yet understand the theories are good enough to calculate how much mass that should be owned by the Higgs boson, which makes their search more difficult because we have to examine a series of mass. The combination of theoretical arguments and data from experiments guides us about roughly how much mass must be suspected.

    Cosmic inventory
    Higgs field theory explaining how particles of the element, the smallest constituent blocks of the universe, acquire their mass. But the Higgs mechanism is not the only source of mass-energy in the universe [ "mass-energy" refers to the mass and energy, which is connected by its ε = mc2 Einstein].

    About 70 percent of the mass-energy of the universe in the form of what is called dark energy, which is not associated directly with the particles. The main sign of the existence of dark energy is that the expansion of the universe is speeding up. The exact nature of dark energy is one of the most profound open questions in physics

    30 percent of the mass-energy of the universe come from matter, mass memory flyer particles. The most familiar type of material are protons, neutrons, and electrons, which make up the stars, planets, people, and everything we see. These particles provide about one-sixth of the material universe, or 4 to 5 percent of the entire universe. As described in the main text, most of the mass arises from the movement energy of quarks and gluons swirling inside protons and neutrons.

    The smallest contribution to the matter of the universe came from particles called neutrinos, which consists of three kinds. Neutrinos have mass but small. The absolute neutrino mass has not been measured, but the data that is put an upper limit on them-less than half a percent of the universe.  

 Almost all the rest of the material-about 25 percent of the total mass-energy of the universe-is a matter that we can not see, called dark matter. We infer its existence from its gravitational effects on what we see. We do not know what dark matter actually is, but there are good candidates, and experiments are under way to test a variety of ideas [see "The Search for Dark Matter," by David B. Cline; Scientific American, March 2003]. It should be composed of dark matter particles form lumps because of massive size of the galaxy due to the effects of gravity. Various arguments allow us to conclude that dark matter may not be composed of particles of the Standard Model normal. 

                             



A prime candidate dark matter particle is superpartner lightest [LSP], which is discussed in more detail in the main text. Superpartner lightest extensions contained in the so-called supersymmetric Standard Model Standard Model. LSP mass of about 100 suspected mass of the proton. That the LSP to be good candidates for dark matter, it has been recognized by theorists before cosmologists know that a fundamentally new form of matter needed to explain dark matter.Large Electron-Positron Collider (LEP) at CERN, the European laboratory for particle physics near Geneva, operates over a series of mass so as to have a significant opportunity to cover the Higgs boson. He found nothing-although there is tantalizing evidence for a [boson] exactly at the limit of the energy and intensity-the collider before it closed in 2000 to make room for construction of new facilities, the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN. Higgs must therefore heavier than 120 mass of the proton. Nevertheless, LEP actually generate indirect evidence that the Higgs boson exists: the experimenters at LEP made a number of precision measurements, which can be combined with similar measurements from the Tevatron and collider at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center. The entire set of data in line both with theory only if a particle interactions with the lightest Higgs boson are included and only if the lightest Higgs boson is not heavier than about 200 proton masses. It provides a limit on the mass of the Higgs boson for researchers, thus helping to focus the search.For the next few years, the only collider to produce direct evidence of the Higgs boson is the Tevatron. Energy is enough to discover the Higgs boson mass in a row implied by indirect evidence LEP, if he can consistently achieve the expected intensity of the beam, which has so far not been possible. In 2007, the LHC, which is seven times more energetic and is designed to have a much higher intensity than the Tevatron, is scheduled to begin taking data. He will be the factory of the Higgs boson (meaning it will generate a lot of particles in a day). Assuming that the LHC is functioning according to plan, collect relevant data and learn how to interpret it should take one to two years. Implementation of exhaustive testing that shows in detail that the interaction with the Higgs field gives mass will require a new electron-positron collider next LHC (which  in a flash fire through a perfect collision protons) and the Tevatron (which  protons and antiprotons).Dark MatterWhat was found on the Higgs boson will not only test whether the Higgs mechanism is indeed providing mass, it will also show the way how the Standard Model can be extended to solve issues such as the origin of dark matter.With regard to dark matter, particles superpartner key SSM is the lightest (LSP / lightest superpartner). Among superpartner particles predicted by the Standard Model SSM, LSP is the lowest-mass superpartner. Most superpartner decay quickly become superpartner lower mass, decay series that ended with LSP, which can not be stable due to decay into lighter particles. (When a superpartner rot, at least one of the decay products should be superpartner others; he must not decompose completely into particles of the Standard Model.) The particles superpartner has been created at the beginning of the big bang but then quickly decayed into LSP-LSPs. LSP is a prime candidate particles for dark matter.Higgs boson may also directly affect the amount of dark matter in the universe. We know that the number of LSPs today should be less than the amount shortly after the big bang, because some were already collided and shattered into quarks, leptons, and photons, and the rate of destruction may be influenced by the LSP-LSPs interacting with Higgs boson-boson.As previously mentioned, two SSM Higgs field gives mass to elementary particles of the Standard Model and some mass to superpartner, such as LSP. Superpartner acquire more mass via additional interaction, perhaps with the Higgs field that further or to fields like the Higgs. We have theoretical models of how these processes can occur, but before we have data on superpartner itself, we will not know in detail how they work. Such data expected from the LHC or perhaps even the Tevatron.Neutrino masses may also arise from interactions with additional Higgs field or field-Higgs-like, with a very interesting way. Initially considered mass memory flyer neutrinos, but since 1979 theorists have predicted that neutrinos have a small mass, and in the last decade or so some impressive experiments have confirmed these predictions. 


So, we have to understand how mass arises in three ways: the main form of mass that we know-that protons, neutrons, and hence the atoms come from the movement of quarks bound into protons and neutrons. Mass of a proton is about the price should be, even without the Higgs field. However, the mass of quarks themselves, and also the mass of the electron, wholly caused by the Higgs field. Masses would vanish without a Higgs. Last, but certainly not least, most of the mass number superpartner, and therefore the mass of dark matter particles (if indeed the lightest superpartner), comes from the interaction in addition to the basic Higgs interactions.Lastly, we consider an issue which is known as a family problem (family issues). In the last half century, physicists have shown that the world we see, from humans, flowers, until the star, constructed of six particles alone: ​​three matter particles (up quarks, down quarks and electrons), two quantum force (photon and gluon ), and the Higgs boson-explanation is amazing and amazingly simple. But there are still four other quarks, two other particles similar to electrons, and three neutrinos. All were very short or hardly interacts with the particles had six. They can be classified into three families: up, down, electron-neutrino, electron; charm, strange, muon-neutrinos, muon; and the top, bottom, tau-neutrino, tau. The particles in each family have identical interactions with particles in other families. They differ slightly, namely that the particles in the second family is heavier than the particles in the first family, and particles in the third family is heavier [than the particles in a second family]. Because these masses arise from interactions with the Higgs field, the particles must have different interactions with the Higgs field.Therefore, the issue of the family has two parts: Why are there three families when only one is needed to describe the world we see? Why these families disputing the mass and specific mass? Perhaps it is not clear why physicists wonder that nature contains three almost identical families even if a person will also be amazed. This is because we want to fully understand the laws of nature and elementary particles and style. We expect every aspect of the basic law is a necessary aspect. The goal is to have a theory in which all the particles and their mass ratio appears inevitable, without making specific assumptions about the price of the masses and without setting parameters. If having three families is essential, then this is a hint that its significance is not currently understood.  


tie EverythingStandard Model and the SSM can accommodate the observed family structure, but they can not explain it. This is a strong statement. This does not mean SSM has not explained the structure of the family, but he could not explain it. For me, the most interesting aspect of string theory is not just that it might provide us with a quantum theory of all forces but also that he may tell us what it is and why elementary particles there are three families. String theory seems able to answer the question of why the interaction with the Higgs field differ among these families. In string theory, repetition family can happen, and they are not identical. Their differences are described by attributes that do not affect the strong force, the weak force, electromagnetic force, or the force of gravity but affect interactions with Higgs fields, matched with the discovery of three mass family is different. Although the string theorists have not completely solved the problem of the discovery of three families, this theory seems to have the right structure to provide a solution. String theory allows many different family structures, and so far nobody knows why nature chose structures that we observe than any other structure . Data on the mass of quarks and leptons and mass superpartner they may provide a major clue to teach us about string theory.We can now understand why it takes so long historically to begin to understand the masses. Without the Standard Model of particle physics and the development of quantum field theory to describe particles and their interactions, physicists can not even formulate the right questions. While the origin of mass and the price is not fully understood, it is likely that the necessary framework to understand it was in place. Massa could not be understood before any theories such as the Standard Model and extensions supe rsimetric and string theory. Are they really provide a complete answer, it is not yet clear, but the mass is now a routine research topic in particle physics.



                                   

 






 

"Symmetry breaking illustrated": – At high energy levels (left) the ball settles in the centre, and the result is symmetrical. At lower energy levels (right), the overall "rules" remain symmetrical, but the "Mexican hat" potential comes into effect: "local" symmetry inevitably becomes broken since eventually the ball must at random roll one way or another.

     Summary of interactions between certain particles described by the Standard Model.



     Photograph of light passing through a dispersive prism: the rainbow effect arises because photons are not all affected to the same degree by the dispersive material of the prism.
     The potential for the Higgs field, plotted as function of ${\displaystyle \phi ^{0}}$ and ${\displaystyle \phi ^{3}}$. It has a Mexican-hat or champagne-bottle profile at the ground.


glimpse opinion on mass and energy ; 

 Matter and Energy: A False Dichotomy

It is common that, when reading about the universe or about particle physics, one will come across a phrase that somehow refers to “matter and energy”, as though they are opposites, or partners, or two sides of a coin, or the two classes out of which everything is made. This comes up in many contexts. Sometimes one sees poetic language describing the Big Bang as the creation of all the “matter and energy” in the universe. One reads of “matter and anti-matter annihilating into `pure’ energy.” And of course two of the great mysteries of astronomy are “dark matter” and “dark energy”. 

 In reality, matter and energy don’t even belong to the same categories; it is like referring to apples and orangutans, or to heaven and earthworms, or to birds and beach balls. 

 Matter and Energy really aren’t in the same class and shouldn’t be paired in one’s mind.
    Matter, in fact, is an ambiguous term; there are several different definitions used in both scientific literature and in public discourse.  Each definition selects a certain subset of the particles of nature, for different reasons.  Consumer beware!  Matter is always some kind of stuff, but which stuff depends on context.
    Energy is not ambiguous (not within physics, anyway).  But energy is not itself stuff; it is something that all stuff has. 
    The term Dark Energy confuses the issue, since it isn’t (just) energy after all.  It also really isn’t stuff; certain kinds of stuff can be responsible for its presence, though we don’t know the details.
    Photons should not be called `energy’, or `pure energy’, or anything similar.  All particles are ripples in fields and have energy; photons are not special in this regard. Photons are stuff; energy is not.
    The stuff of the universe is all made from fields (the basic ingredients of the universe) and their particles.  At least this is the post-1973 viewpoint.  

 What’s the Matter (and the Energy)?

First, let’s define (or fail to define) our terms.

The word Matter. “Matter” as a term is terribly ambiguous; there isn’t a universal definition that is context-independent.  There are at least three possible definitions that are used in various places:

    “Matter” can refer to atoms, the basic building blocks of what we think of as “material”: tables, air, rocks, skin, orange juice — and by extension, to the particles out of which atoms are made, including electrons and the protons and neutrons that make up the nucleus of an atom.
    OR it can refer to what are sometimes called the elementary “matter particles” of nature: electrons, muons, taus, the three types of neutrinos, the six types of quarks — all of the types of particles which are not the force particles (the photon, gluons, graviton and the W and Z particles.)  Read here about the known apparently-elementary particles of nature.  [The Higgs particle, by the way, doesn’t neatly fit into the classification of particles as matter particles and force particles, which was somewhat artificial to start with; I have a whole section about this classification below.]
    OR it can refer to classes of particles that are found out there, in the wider universe, and that on average move much more slowly than the speed of light.

With any of these definitions, electrons are matter (although with the third definition they were not matter very early in the universe’s history, when it was much hotter than it is today.) With the second definition, muons are matter too, and so are neutrinos, even though they aren’t constituents of ordinary material.  With the third definition, some neutrinos may or may not be matter, and dark matter is definitely matter, even if it turns out to be made from a new type of force particle. 

 Now, what about the word Energy. Fortunately, energy (as physicists use it) is a well-defined concept that everyone in physics agrees on.  Unfortunately, the word in English has so many meanings that it is very easy to become confused about what physicists mean by it.  But for the moment, suffice it to say that energy is not itself an object.  An atom is an object; energy is not. Energy is something which objects can have, and groups of objects can have — a property of objects that characterizes their behavior and their relationships to one another.  [Though it should be noted that different observers will assign different amounts of energy to a given object — a tricky point that is illustrated carefully in the above-mentioned article on mass and energy.] And for this article, all we really need to know is that particles moving on their own through space can have two types of energy: mass-energy (i.e., E= mc2 type of energy, which does not depend on whether and how a particle moves) and motion-energy (energy that is zero if a particle is stationary and becomes larger as a particle moves faster).

Annihilation of Particles and Antiparticles Isn’t Matter Turning Into Energy

Let’s first examine the notion that “matter and anti-matter annihilate to pure energy.” This, simply put, isn’t true, for several reasons.

In the green paragraphs above, I gave you three different common definitions of “matter.”  In the context of annihilation of particles and anti-particles,  speakers may either be referring to the first definition or the second. Here I want to discuss the annihilation of electrons and anti-electrons (or “positrons”), or the annihilation of muons and anti-muons.  I’ve described this in detail in an article on Particle/Anti-Particle Annihilation. You’ll need it to understand what I say next, so I’m going to assume that you have read it.  Once you’ve done that, you’re ready to try to understand where the (false) notion that matter and antimatter annihilate into pure energy comes from.

What is meant by “pure energy”?  This is almost always used in reference to photons, commonly in the context of an electron and a positron (or some other massive particle and anti-particle) annihilating to make two photons (recall the antiparticle of a photon is also a photon.)  But it’s a terrible thing to do.  Energy is something that photons have; it is not what photons are.  [I have height and weight; that does not mean I am height and weight.] 

The term “pure energy” is a mix of poetry, shorthand and garbage.   Since photons have no mass, they have no mass-energy, and that means their energy is “purely motion-energy”.  But that does not mean the same thing, either in physics or intuitively to the non-expert, as saying photons are “pure energy”.   Photons are particles just as electrons are particles; they both are ripples in a corresponding field, and they both have energy.  The electron and positron that annihilated had energy too — the same amount of energy as the photons to which they annihilate, in fact, since energy is conserved (i.e. the total amount does not change during the annihilation process.) (See Figure 3 of the particle/anti-particle annihilation article.

Moreover (see Figures 1 and 2 of the particle/anti-particle annihilation article), the process muon + anti-muon → two photons  is on exactly the same footing and occurs with almost exactly the same probability as the process muon + anti-muon → electron + positron — which is matter and anti-matter annihilating into another type of matter and anti-matter.  So no matter how you want to express this, it is certainly not true that matter and anti-matter always annihilate into anything you might even loosely call `energy’; there are other possibilities.

For these reasons I don’t use the “matter and energy” language on this website when speaking about annihilation.  I just call this type of process what it is:

    particle 1 + anti-particle 1 → particle 2 + anti-particle 2

With this plain-spoken terminology it is clear why a muon and anti-muon annihilating to two photons, or to an electron and a positron, or to a neutrino and an anti-neutrino, are all on the same footing. They are all the same class of process. And we need not make distinctions that don’t really exist and that obscure the universality of particle/anti-particle annihilation.

Not Everything is Matter or Energy, By a Long Shot

Why do people sometimes talk about “matter and energy” as though everything is either matter or energy?   Language reflects history, and often reacts slowly to new information.  Part of the problem is that enormous changes in physicists’ conception of the world and its ingredients occurred between 1900 and 1980. This has mostly stopped for now;   

 What do “fields and particles” have to do with “matter and energy”? Not much. Some fields and particles are what you would call “matter”, but which ones are matter, and which ones aren’t, depends on which definition of “matter” you are using.  Meanwhile, all fields and particles can have energy; but none of them are energy.

Matter Particles and Force Particles — Well…

 we ’ve divided the known particles up into “matter particles” and “force particles”. This  the force particles and their anti-particles are associated with the four forces of nature that we know so far, and the matter particles and their anti-particles are all of the others. And there are many situations in which this division is convenient.  But at the Large Hadron Collider [LHC] we could easily discover particles that don’t fit into this categorization;
There’s an alternate (but very different) division that makes sense: what I called matter particles all happen to be fermions, and what I called force particles all happen to be bosons. But this could change too with new discoveries.

What this really comes down to is that all the particles of nature are simply particles, some of which are each other’s anti-particles, and there isn’t a unique way to divide them up into classes . The reason I used “matter” and “force” is that this is a little less abstract-sounding than “fermions” and “bosons”  — but I may come to regret my choice, because we might discover particles at the LHC, or elsewhere, that break this distinction down.

Matter and Energy in the Universe

Another place we encounter words of this type is in the history and properties of the cosmos as a whole.   We read about matter, radiation, dark matter, and dark energy. The use of the words by cosmologists is quite different from what you might expect — and it actually involves two or three different meanings, and depends strongly on context.

Matter vs. Anti-Matter:  when you hear people talk this way, they’re talking about the first definition within the green paragraphs above.  They are typically referring to the imbalance of matter over anti-matter in our universe — the fact that the particles that make up ordinary material (electrons, protons and neutrons in particular) are much more abundant than any of their anti-particles.

Matter vs. Radiation: if you hear this distinction, you’re dealing with the third definition of `matter’.  The universe has a temperature; it was very hot early on and has been gradually cooling, now at 2.7 Celsius-degrees above absolute zero. If you have a gas (or plasma) of particles at a given temperature T, and you measure the energies of these particles, you will find that the average motion-energy per particle is given by k T, where k is Boltzmann‘s famous constant. Now matter, in this context, is any particle whose mass-energy mc2  is large compared to this average motion energy kT; such particles will have velocity much slower than the speed of light. And radiation is any particle whose mass-energy is small compared to kT, and is consequently moving close to the speed of light.

Notice what this means. In this context, what is matter, and what is not, is temperature-dependent and therefore time-dependent! Early in the universe, when the temperature was trillions of degrees and even hotter, the electron was what cosmologists consider radiation. Today, with the universe much cooler, the electron is in the category of matter.  In the present universe at least two of the three types of neutrinos are matter, and maybe all three, by this definition; but all the neutrinos were radiation early in the universe. Photons have always been and will always be radiation, since they are mass memory flyer .

What is Dark Matter?  We can tell from studying the motions of stars and other techniques that most of the mass of a galaxy comes from something that doesn’t shine, and lots of hard work has been done to prove that known particles behaving in ordinary ways cannot be responsible. To explain this effect, various speculations have been proposed, and many have been shown (through observation of how  galaxies look and behave, typically) to be wrong. Of the survivors, one of the leading contenders is that dark matter is made from heavy particles of an unknown type.  But we don’t know much more than that as yet.  Experiments may soon bring us new insights, though this is not guaranteed.  [Note also there may be not be any meaning to dark anti-matter; the particles of dark matter, like photons and Z particles, may well be their own anti-particles.]

And Dark Energy? It was recently discovered that the universe is expanding faster and faster, not slower and slower as was the case when it was younger.  What is presumably responsible is called “dark energy”, but unfortunately, it’s actuall and relation of differential  . 



                                                                  X  .  IIIIII   

                                           Learning How "Penetrating Space and Time"  

   


 a tunnel that is a blend of dots resembling mesh nets narrow connecting between the universe with each other universes that can be penetrated like a stream of shock shock from pole one to the other pole in the space the points of the mesh nets approaches infinity in time and space . 

                                            

then someday human technology in the future will be expected to penetrate the space and time in the universe. wherein regions in this universe will move quickly and move goods faster than light, because we can connect matter and anti-matter, or can be called matter to anti-matter converter and then turn right around again.  


 

Illustration star ships currently open "the points of the mesh nets stun" or similar "lock gate interstellar energy" to break through time and space towards another dimension or another galaxy at speeds exceeding the speed of light.